Robert Plutchik is a psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. Learn more about
Plutchik's theory, the wheel of emotions, primary emotions, and dyads.
Definition
When we think about our emotions, we tend to think of them solely as states of feeling. For example, we tend
to describe happiness as the state of feeling joy or pleasure. According to the late psychologist Robert
Plutchik, emotions are much more complex than most people realize.
Emotions have a long evolutionary history. Our emotions are not only adaptive, but they have evolved over
time in order to increase our reproductive fitness. Emotion plays an important role in issues of survival.
Emotion also involves both cognition and behavior. For example, let's say that you were approached by a
snake (threatening event). You would conclude that you were in danger (cognition), which would cause you to
feel fear (emotion). Your fear activates the fight-or-flight response. As a result, you slowly back away from
the snake in an attempt to escape (goal-directed behavior).
Robert Plutchik's developed ten postulates on which his evolutionary theory of emotions is based:
1. Animals and Humans: Animals and humans both experience the same basic emotions in similar ways.
2. Evolutionary History: Emotions appeared as a result of evolution. Emotions were present in animals
even before apes evolved.
3. Survival Issues: Emotions have evolved over time in order to increase the chances of survival in the
environment. For example, trust results in collaboration and sharing between humans.
4. Prototype Patterns: Although there are several types of emotions that are present in different species,
there are prototype patterns, or common elements, that are identifiable.
5. Basic Emotions: A relatively small number of prototype, primary or basic emotions exist and can be
identified.
6. Combinations: All other emotions occur as a result of a mixtures, or combinations, of the basic
emotions. For example, love is a combination of joy (primary emotion) and trust (primary emotion).
7. Hypothetical Constructs: It is recognized that primary emotions are hypothetical constructs or idealized
states which we describe in terms of their particular properties and characteristics. These descriptions
can only be inferred based on several kinds of evidence.
8. Opposites: The primary emotions are categorized into pairs of polar opposites.
9. Similarity: All emotions have different degrees of similarity to one another.
10. Intensity: Each emotion can vary in its level of intensity.
Plutchik's Eight Basic Emotions
Plutchik's eight basic or primary emotions
are Joy, Trust, Fear, Surprise, Sadness, Anticipation,
Anger, and Disgust. Each primary emotion has a polar
opposite, so that:
 Joy is the opposite of Sadness
 Fear is the opposite of Anger
 Anticipation is the opposite of Surprise
 Disgust is the opposite of Trust
Plutchik created the wheel of emotions in order to
illustrate the various relationships among the emotions.
The intensity of emotion decreases as you move outward and increases as you move toward the wheel's center.
The intensity of the emotion is indicated by the color. The darker the shade, the more intense the emotion. For
example, anger at its least level of intensity is annoyance. At its highest level of intensity, anger becomes rage.
Combinations Of Emotions
Plutchik's wheel also contains primary dyads, which are combinations of primary emotions that lie next to
each other on the wheel of emotions. The following contains a list of primary dyads:
 Optimism: The combination of Anticipation and Joy
 Love: The combination of Joy and Trust
 Submission: The combination of Trust and Fear
 Awe: The combination of Fear and Surprise
 Disappointment: The combination of Surprise and Sadness
 Remorse: The combination of Sadness and Disgust
 Contempt: The combination of Disgust and Anger
 Aggression: The combination of Anger and Anticipation
Plutchik identified secondary dyads, which are combinations of primary emotions that are once removed from
each other on the wheel of emotions. Examples of secondary dyads include:
 Guilt: The combination of Joy and Fear
 Curiosity: The combination of Trust and Surprise
 Despair: The combination of Fear and Sadness
 Envy: The combination of Sadness and Anger
There are also tertiary dyads, which are combinations of primary emotions that are twice removed from each
other on the wheel of emotions. Examples of tertiary dyads include:
 Delight: The combination of Joy and Surprise
 Shame: The combination of Fear and Disgust
 Anxiety: The combination of Anticipation and Fear
 Dominance: The combination of Anger and Trust
Lesson Summary
Robert Plutchik is a psychologist who created a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. Plutchik identified ten
postulates on which his evolutionary theory of emotions is based. Plutchik's wheel of emotion illustrates the
relationships between his primary emotions and other related emotions. Plutchik identified eight primary
emotions and several primary dyads, secondary dyads, and tertiary dyads.