Bar Ilan Trom Mitkadmim
Skills Section
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Parts of Speech ………………………………
1
Chapter 2: Strategies for Unknown Words ……………… 6
Chapter 3: Sentence Structure ………………………….. 26
Chapter 4: References …………………………………… 43
Chapter 5: Connectives ………………………………….. 50
Chapter 6: Paragraph Structure …………………………. 73
Chapter 7: Passive Voice ………………………………… 83
Chapter 8: Dictionary Skills ……………………………...
87
Vocabulary Charts …………………………………………
89
0
Chapter 1:
Parts of Speech
__________________________
In order to guess the meaning of an unfamiliar word or to look it up in the dictionary, it
is helpful to know what part of speech the word is.
For example, what does the word “abstract” mean? If you look in the dictionary, you
will find several definitions:
1.
abstract (adjective) – thought of separately from anything concrete or any
specific object
2.
abstract (noun) – a summary of the main points of a book, article, etc.
3.
abstract (verb) – to take something out, to separate something (from another)
Choosing the correct definition depends on the context of the word and its part of
speech. Read the following sentences and choose the correct definition of “abstract.”
1.
When you read the abstract, you will understand the main ideas of the article.
2.
Young children usually can’t understand abstract ideas.
3.
Let’s try to abstract the main points of the article.
In the first sentence, “abstract” is a noun and matches definition number 2. In the
second sentence, it is an adjective and matches definition number 1. In the third
sentence, “abstract” is a verb and matches definition number 3.
In this unit, you will learn how to identify the parts of speech of words in texts. This
will help you to look up words in the dictionary; it will also improve your ability to
guess the meanings of unfamiliar words.
1
How much do you know? Test yourself! Try to fill in the following table.
NOUN
ADJECTIVE
VERB
ADVERB
Question
Which?
What kind of?
Function
What does
someone/something
do?
Names a
person,
animal, thing,
place,
feeling, or
idea
Describes a verb,
an adjective, or
another adverb
Example
walk slowly
absolutely wrong
very quickly
The main parts of speech are: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
*A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea.
e.g. table, Jerusalem, Michal, freedom, democracy.
*Every sentence contains a verb.
-Action verbs tell what is being done in the sentence.
e.g. The man caught the bus.
-Linking verbs join a noun to something that is said about it.
e.g. The clouds are dark and threatening.
The most common linking verbs are: am, is, are, was, were
*An adjective is a word that describes a noun.
e.g. The tired old dog lay down on the comfortable mat in front of the warm
fireplace.
*An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Many
adverbs end in -ly.
e.g. The father yelled angrily at his son.
e.g. We have an extremely busy schedule this week.
e.g. The old man spoke very quietly to his granddaughter.
Another important part of speech is prepositions.
*A preposition is a word that connects a noun to another word in the sentence.
e.g. The lady in the store bought two dresses.
*A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition + a noun. Prepositional
phrases are often used to introduce a sentence or to describe a noun.
e.g. The book on the shelf is excellent.
e.g. In the morning before class, the students jumped from their beds excitedly.
2
Some Common Prepositions
About
above
across
after
among
around
At
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
between
by
down
during
except
for
From
in
into
of
off
on
Over
through
to
toward
under
up
With
How can you know what part of speech a word is?
One possibility is to look at its place in the sentence. Do the following exercise, and
then try to figure out where the different parts of speech appear in sentences.
Exercise 1
Fill in the blanks with words that make sense. Fill in only one word. Then write the
part of speech of the word you filled in. (There may be more than one possibility.)
Fill in the missing words
Part of speech of missing words
1. the ______________________ apple
2. I ____________________ slowly.
3. I saw him walking __________ the park.
4. She ______________ chewed her gum.
5. He walked ______________________.
6. a nice ____________________ child
7. He is _____________________ busy.
8. The teacher was __________________.
9. Henry __________________ chocolate.
10. ______________________ the house
3
Exercise 2
On top of each underlined word, write whether it is a noun (n.), verb (v.), adjective
(adj.), adverb (adv.), or preposition (prep.).
Example: An average student can pass this examination.
average – adj. (adjective)
pass – v. (verb)
1.
A psychologist studies the behavior of man.
2.
The talented piano teacher played beautifully.
3.
The girl gazed wistfully at the old photograph.
4.
The sickly children benefited from a holiday by the sea.
5.
The archaeologist discovered the ancient ruins.
6.
Professional athletes eat healthy food.
Exercise 3
Read the following paragraph and underline the words that you don’t know.
Throughout our lives we are forlected to behave in collain ways, at home, at school, or
at perk. Our pritions are sercluenced by others who try to plake it clear what they
want us to do; they try to pressure us into doing what they magire.
Could you figure out the general meaning of the paragraph? (Hint: Knowing the parts
of speech of the unknown words can help you guess their meanings.) Reread the
paragraph and decide which parts of speech the unknown words are. Then try to
guess what they could mean.
4
Exercise 4
Read the following text and answer the questions.
A Great Tragedy
1.
Margaret Mitchell, the author of the enormously popular novel Gone with the
Wind, died in 1949, at the age of forty-nine. She was killed by a reckless driver
whose only excuse for his carelessness was “everybody does it.”
2.
Mitchell was killed while crossing a street together with her husband in her home
town of Atlanta, Georgia. As they were crossing the street, a car driven by a
twenty-nine year old, off-duty taxi driver named Hugh D. Gravitt tore around the
corner. It braked, skidded, and swerved as the driver attempted to avoid the
imminent disaster. But Miss Mitchell panicked, pulled away from her husband,
and ran in the direction the car had veered. She was hit and fell unconscious.
She died of a skull fracture after five days in critical condition.
3.
The driver was sentenced to eighteen months in prison for involuntary
manslaughter.
Questions:
1. a. Who was Margaret Mitchell? ________________________________________
b. How popular was her novel? ________________________________________
2. a. List all the verbs that express the movements of the car driven by Gravitt.
________________________________________________________________
b. Describe Mitchell’s reaction.
________________________________________
c. What kind of fracture did M. Mitchell die of? ____________________________
3. a. Scan the text and list all the adjectives describing Gravitt.
________________________________________________________________
b. What kind of disaster did he try to avoid? (Answer in one word).
_________________________
4. a. What happened to Gravitt? _________________________________________
b. What was he found guilty of? _______________________________________
5
Chapter 2:
Strategies for Unknown Words
_____________________________________
When you see an unknown word in a text, what do you do? Sometimes you may
look up the word in the dictionary, but this is not always necessary. Often you can
understand the meaning of the word either from the context – the words surrounding
the unknown word – or from the form of the word itself. In the examples below, try to
guess the meanings of the italicized words using the context and the form.
Example:
- The army managed to quell the protest when they caught the leaders.
Quell means:
a. encourage
b. start
c. put down
d. kill
The context of the sentence makes it clear that quell means “put down.”
Example:
- Given the poor condition of the road and the bad weather, the accident was
unavoidable.
Unavoidable means:
a. cannot be avoided
b. able to avoid again
c. cannot avoid before
d. avoided in the wrong way
The prefix and suffix (un = not, able = ability) make it clear that unavoidable means
“cannot be avoided.”
In this chapter, you will learn strategies for guessing the meanings of new words.
This will help you to read faster and improve your comprehension. In addition,
learning the meanings of prefixes and suffixes will help you build your vocabulary.
6
Exercise 1
Some words are missing in the following paragraph. Read the paragraph, and try to
understand the general ideas. Then answer the questions below.
In the late 1970’s, a young woman, who will be known here as Harriet to protect her
________________, _____________ into the psychiatric ________________ of a
Chicago hospital. Overweight and diabetic, Harriet was also suffering from
headaches, followed by _________________ lasting several hours. Once at the
hospital, she was diagnosed as having a ____________________, an emotional
condition in which the patient has two or more ________________ personalities that
alternately ____________________ and take control of the person’s behavior.
Harriet was treated by Dr. Bennett Braun, one of the __________________ experts
on the __________________. Using __________________, Dr. Braun found four
separate personalities living within his patient’s body. Harriet, the
___________________ personality, was a ________________ but pleasant young
woman.
Questions:
1. Who is this paragraph about?
2. What was wrong with her?
3. Where did she go?
4. Who treated her? What do you know about him?
5. What did he find?
Were you able to understand the general ideas of the passage?
Now reread the passage. Try to guess what words or kinds of words are
missing. (For example, even if you don’t know the exact word, you might
know that it is a symptom, a description, an action, etc.)
Were you able to fill in some of the missing words?
7
Here is the complete paragraph below. Try to guess the meanings of the
underlined words, which were missing above.
In the late 1970’s, a young woman, who will be known here as Harriet to protect her
privacy, checked into the psychiatric unit of a Chicago hospital. Overweight and
diabetic, Harriet was also suffering from headaches, followed by blackouts lasting
several hours. Once at the hospital, she was diagnosed as having a multiple
personality disorder, an emotional condition in which the patient has two or more
distinct personalities that alternately emerge and take control of the person’s
behavior. Harriet was treated by Dr. Bennett Braun, one of the foremost experts on
the disorder. Using hypnosis, Dr. Braun found four separate personalities living
within his patient’s body. Harriet, the host personality, was a subdued but pleasant
young woman.
Conclusions:
-You can understand information from a text even without understanding every word!
-Sometimes it is possible to guess which word is missing (or at least something about
the word). This will help you to continue reading without stopping to look in the
dictionary.
8
Context Clues: Often the context provides clues to the meaning of unknown
words. Below is a list of some common context clues.
1. Explanations and Definitions: Sometimes an explanation or definition of a
word is given in a text; if you keep reading, the meaning becomes clear.
Example: Exchange marriage, in which two men marry each other’s sister, is
often found among primitive tribes.
Example:
Linguistics is the study of language across time and space.
Example:
My nephew is studying ethnography, i.e., the description of the social
and cultural systems of different groups.
2. Examples: Examples of something may help you understand what it is; if you
don’t understand the example, knowing what it exemplifies may help you
understand the word.
Example:
Vehicles such as trucks, buses, and cars are not allowed in the park.
Example: Many types of flowers, e.g. cyclamen and daffodils, grow well in this
part of the country.
Punctuation: Colons (:), dashes (-), commas (, ,), parentheses ( ), and semicolons (;) may mean that an example or explanation will follow.
Example: The Greek marriage was monogamous – men and women were
allowed only one spouse at a time.
3. Cause/Effect: Understanding a cause/effect relationship in a text may help you
understand the meaning of an unknown word.
Example: She was so plump that when she sat on the chair, it sank into the soft
ground. She tugged and tugged, but it wouldn’t come out.
4. Synonyms: Instead of repeating the same word in a text, writers will often use
synonyms. If you understand the synonym, you’ll understand the word.
Example: Proponents of the “nature” theory believe that our genes determine our
behavior and supporters of the “nurture” theory believe that our environment
decides our behavior.
9
5. Antonyms and Contrast: When you know what something is not, then you can
understand what it is.
Example: The people in that neighborhood are affluent, not poor.
Example: Although Irit had every reason to be happy, she looked glum.
6. General Meaning of the Text: The general meaning of the text can help you
understand the meanings of unfamiliar words.
Example: The context of the article can help you infer the meanings of unknown
words.
Exercise 2
Circle the letter of the meanings of the words in bold, and underline the part of the
sentence that gives you clues to its meaning.
1. The adverse weather conditions forced us to stay inside for most of our vacation.
The day the weather finally turned nice, we had to leave.
Adverse means:
a. bad
b. nice
c. summer
2. It seemed as if everyone came to the celebration. Some of the notables in the
crowd included actress Julia Roberts, sports star O.J. Simpson, and New York
Mayor Michael Bloomberg.
Notables are:
a. average people
b. famous people
c. politicians
3. Steve lived in Hawaii for fifteen years, so it is hard for me to conceive of why he
decided to move to Minnesota.
Conceive of means:
a. plan
b. forget
c. think of, imagine
4. Larry was a mediocre, or average, student in all of his subjects.
Mediocre means: a. not too good and not too bad
b. excellent
c. very weak
5. I thought it was difficult to ascend the mountain, but the climb down was even
worse.
Ascend means:
a. climb down
b. walk around
c. climb up
6. My company has a regulation allowing new mothers to take three months off
from work. I think there should be a rule allowing fathers the same time off.
Regulation is:
a. time off
b. law
c. new father
7. Conspicuous features, including a muscular build, good looks, and a height of
2.10m, attract attention to Tom wherever he goes.
Conspicuous means:
a. large
b. famous
10
c. noticeable
8. My brother felt it would be futile to try to make the basketball team. He was not
tall enough, so he couldn’t compete with others; they were all at least 20
centimeters taller than he.
Futile means:
a. successful
b. useless
c. deadly
9. It is hard to believe that my millionaire cousin was once indigent, so poor that he
walked the streets without knowing where his next meal would come from.
Indigent means:
a. rich
b. unhealthy
c. without any
money
10. Fictitious detectives such as Sherlock Holmes make detective work seem much
easier than it really is.
Fictitious means: a. true-life
b. unknown
c. not real
Exercise 3
In each of the following sentences, guess the meanings of the underlined words from
their contexts. Then write which context clue helped you: definition,
paraphrase/explanation, examples, synonyms, antonyms or contrast, cause/effect.
1. Instead of refreshing me, an afternoon nap only makes me more lethargic.
Lethargic: __________________ Context Clue: ___________________
2. Whenever I have a yen for a cigarette, I chew on a pencil instead.
Yen: ___________________
Context Clue: ___________________
3. The neighborhood is so affluent that there are Olympic-sized swimming pools,
tennis courts, and luxury cars on most properties.
Affluent: ___________________ Context Clue: ___________________
4. Kim had fortified the walls of her sand castle with aluminum cans, but that hadn’t
strengthened them enough to resist the incoming waves.
Fortified: ___________________
Context Clue: ___________________
5. Stan was convicted of several felonies; as a result of being involved in such
serious crimes, he was sentenced to twenty years in prison.
Felonies: ___________________
Context Clue: ___________________
6. The teacher would have achieved better results if she had been as quick to
commend students for their successes as she was to criticize them for their
failures.
Commend: _________________ Context Clue: ___________________
7. It was always hard to know what Uncle Harold was really thinking – was his
enthusiasm for the trip feigned or real?
Feigned: ___________________
Context Clue: ___________________
11
8. Rabbits deserve their reputation for being prolific. A female can produce three
families each summer.
Prolific: ___________________ Context Clue: ___________________
9. Flextime, or flexibility of working hours, has become popular in recent years.
Flextime: ___________________
Context Clue: ___________________
10. Listless, dull babies become lively, normal youngsters when they are cared for
lovingly.
Listless: ___________________ Context Clue: ___________________
Exercise 4
Read the following passage and answer the questions. Note that in order to answer
the questions, you must find the context clues that explain the words in bold.
The Wise and Humble King
1. When Sobhuza II became King of Swaziland, he wasn’t able to read or write. He
was even incapable of walking or talking. Sobhuza was less than one year old.
When he died, Sobhuza had been in power longer than any sovereign in modern
history. He had been ruler of the African country for over 82 years.
2. Sobhuza was an amazing person, and not just because of the length of his reign.
For one thing, he had more than 100 wives and 500 to 600 children. He was also
a very simple, polite, and humble man. For example, he shunned his $12
million dollar palace, and lived instead in a plain house across the street. In the
Swaziland telephone book, he was listed simply as “His Majesty.” His phone
number was placed between those of the Hill St. Lodge and the Hit Parade
Record Bar.
3. Sobhuza was also a very enlightened ruler. Because he was so wise, he
recognized the need to keep both traditional and modern ways in Swaziland. For
example, he encouraged witch doctors to keep practicing their traditional medical
methods within their tribes. At the same time, he built modern clinics to meet the
health needs of all his people. He made sure Swaziland’s mines had the most
modern equipment and also led celebrations on all traditional holidays.
4. Sobhuza had very pragmatic, or practical, reasons for his actions. He wanted to
keep all people in Swaziland happy and united.
12
5. For most of his rule, Sobhuza did not have much power. Swaziland was under
British control. Then in 1969, the country became independent, and the king and
a legislature ran the government. Four years later, Sobhuza abolished the
legislature and took over control himself. He appointed relatives to important
government posts. His people loved, honored, and revered him so highly that
they didn’t oppose his actions. They looked on him as a wise and loving father.
Questions:
1. An antonym for incapable used in the first sentence helps you know incapable
means ________________.
a. unable
b. enjoyable
c. excited
2. Find sovereign in the story. What synonym for sovereign is used in the next
sentence?
a. country
b. year
c. ruler
3. The other words in the series with humble help you guess that humble means
________________.
a. proud
b. modest
c. mean
4. Since the king didn’t live in his palace, you can guess that shunned means
________________.
a. enjoyed
b. built
c. avoided
5. Find enlightened in the story. What synonym for enlightened is used in the next
sentence?
a. traditional
b. modern
c. wise
6. The words right after pragmatic help you know that pragmatic means
________________.
a. strange
b. practical
c. sneaky
7. Since you know Sobhuza took over total control, you can guess abolished
means ________________.
a. canceled or ended
b. strengthened or improved c. set up
8. The other words in the series with revered help you know that revered means
________________.
a. feared
b. hated
13
c. respected
Exercise 5
Read the following passage. Then try to guess the meanings of the
underlined words. For each word, indicate which words in the text, or which
context clue, helped you guess.
Nobody’s Watching Me
1. I am a foot taller than Napoleon and twice the weight of Twiggy; on my only visit
to a beautician, the woman said she found my face a challenge. Yet despite
these social disadvantages I feel cheerful, happy, confident, and secure.
2. I work for a daily newspaper and so get to a lot of places I would otherwise never
see. This year I went to the horse races at Ascot to write about the people there.
I saw something there that made me realize the stupidity of trying to conform – of
trying to be like everyone else. There was a small, plump woman, all dressed up
– huge hat, dress with pink butterflies, long white gloves. She also had a
shooting-stick. But because she was so plump, when she sat on the stick it went
deep into the ground and she couldn’t pull it out. She tugged and tugged, tears of
rage in her eyes. When the final tug brought it out, she crashed with it to the
ground.
3. I saw her walk away. Her day had been ruined. She had made a fool of
herself in public – she had impressed nobody. In her own sad, red eyes she
was a failure.
4. I remember well when I was like that, in the days before I learned that nobody
really cared what you do….
5. I remember the pain of my first dance, something that is always meant to be a
wonderful occasion for a girl…. There was a fashion then for diamante earrings,
and I wore them so often practicing for the big night that I got two great sores on
my ears and had to put sticking-plaster on them. Perhaps it was this that made
nobody want to dance with me. Whatever it was, there I sat for four hours and 43
minutes. When I came home, I told my parents that I had a marvelous time and
that my feet were sore from dancing. They were pleased at my success and they
went to bed happy, but I went to my room and tore the bits of sticking-plaster off
my ears and felt forlorn and disconsolate.
(Adapted from an article in The Listener by Maeve Binchy)
14
Word
Guess
Context Clue
1. conform
2. plump
3. dressed up
4. shooting-stick
5. tugged/tug
6. sores/sore
7. sticking-plaster
8. marvelous
9. forlorn
10. disconsolate
15
Markers of Examples and Definitions / Explanations: Certain words,
expressions, or punctuation indicate examples, definitions, or explanations in
a text.
for example
for instance
e.g.
like*
such as
that is
i.e.
in other words
or
“to be” (is, are)
Punctuation:
dashes (-)
commas (, ,)
colons (:)
parentheses ()
*Like can indicate a comparison or examples in the text.
Exercise 6
Read the following sentences and underline the parts of each sentence which
help you understand the meaning of the word in bold print. Circle the markers
of example or definition that helped you.
1. Like Finnish and Hungarian, Basque is a language spoken in Europe, but it is not
an Indo-European language.
2. Several types of accommodations are available, e.g. bed and breakfasts,
motels, youth hostels, and luxury hotels.
3. Many people prefer to live in the suburbs – the areas outside the cities – or even
farther away, in the countryside.
4. The women of the rural areas occupy themselves with a number of traditional
activities besides embroidering.
5. He likes different types of sweets, for instance, cake, candy, and chocolate.
6. Human beings change the air by adding pollutants like smoke from factories and
fumes from car motors.
7. Air pollution can cause many health disorders: asthma, lung cancer, and
allergies.
8. This information is confidential; i.e., it is a secret.
9. He is the deputy mayor; that is, he assists the mayor and takes his place when
the mayor is unavailable.
10. Humidity, or moisture in the air, can influence people’s health.
11. The girl hated the menial work she had to do, such as washing the dishes,
cleaning the floors, and taking out the garbage.
12. Like other large marine mammals, the narwhal is in danger of extinction.
16
13. He owes much of his success to propinquity, being in the right place at the right
time.
14. A loss leader is a product or service that sells at a loss but generates customer
interest that can lead to a later profit.
15. Because Nitza’s hippocampus (an area of the brain that deals with memory) was
damaged, her ability to learn new words was weakened.
Exercise 7
Read the following passage. Then try to guess the meanings of the underlined
words. For each word, indicate which words in the text, or which context clue, helped
you guess.
Forms of the Family
1. Most social anthropologists recognize the family as a basic social unit. In its most
elementary form it may be defined as a group consisting of a man and a woman
and their children living together in one home. Such a domestic group is known as
a nuclear family. It is usually established by means of a formal contract of
marriage. However, it can also be said to exist when a couple and their offspring
share a common residence, whether the couple is married or not, that is to say, a
family may exist when the relationship between the man and the woman is one of
concubinage rather than one of marriage.
2. Although we can, in general, define the nuclear family as a couple and their
children living within the same residential boundary, we must recognize that such
a definition is in fact a generalization which may not hold true in particular
instances. Sometimes a nuclear family is incomplete in that one spouse is absent
from the household. In most cases, it is the man rather than the woman who is
away from home; such a situation may be the result of social convention. For
example, among the Ashanti, a tribe living in Ghana, spouses continue to reside
with their own kin after marriage and do not live together as husband and wife.
3. The nuclear family may be extended by the addition of other people living within
the same residential boundary. So far we have been assuming that the family is
always based on monogamous marriage; that is when only one man and one
woman live together as husband and wife. But monogamy is only one form of
marriage. In societies where polygamy is practiced, the family will, of course,
include more than two spouses. In the case of polygyny, it will include one
17
husband and more than one wife, and in the case of polyandry it will include one
wife and more than one husband.
4. In both monogamous and polygamous societies, families may also be extended
by the addition of related or non-related people. In some, for example, people like
servants and workmen live with the family as members of the household. One
also finds that families are extended by the addition of consanguineal relatives, or
kin, of one or more of the marriage partners like brothers, sisters, fathers,
grandfathers and so on. Affinal relatives like brothers-in-law, sisters-in-law and so
on may also become members of the family and share a common residence with
the brother or sister of their spouses.
1. nuclear family
______________________________________________
helpful words:
______________________________________________
2. offspring
helpful words:
3. concubinage
helpful words:
4. spouse
helpful words:
5. Ashanti
helpful words:
6. monogamy
helpful words:
7. polygamy
helpful words:
8. polygyny
helpful words:
9. polyandry
helpful words:
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
10. consanguineal relatives _______________________________________
helpful words:
11. affinal relatives
helpful words:
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
______________________________________________
18
Affixes (Prefixes and Suffixes): Many words are formed by adding prefixes or
suffixes to the root word. Knowing the meanings of the prefixes and suffixes
can help you to understand the definitions of words formed in this way. Below
is a list of common prefixes and suffixes.
Prefix/Suffix
Usual Meaning
Examples
un-, non-, in- not
unchanged, nonviolent, inexpensive,
il-, ir-, im-
illogical, irresponsible, impossible
in-
inside
inborn, innate, incoming
de-, dis-
reverses action of
defrost, disconnect
verb
re-
again
redo, retry
ante-, pre-
before
antedate, preread
fore-
a) before b) in front
forehead, foresee
post-
after
postdate, postwar
anti-,
against
antiwar, contradict, counterargument,
in favor of, supports
pro-business, pro-choice,
contra-,
counter-,
pro-
pro-conservation
inter-
between
international
intra-
within
intravenous, intranational
mid-
middle
midday, mid-sentence, midnight
mal-
bad, ill
malfunction, maltreat, malnourish
mis-
in the wrong way
misunderstand, misplace, misguided
out-
a) outside b) to do
outgoing, outbuilding, output
better or more
outdo, outrun, outsmart, outstare
many
multipurpose, multimillionaire
multi-, poly-
polysyllabic, polyglot, polytheism
semi-
partly, half
semicircle, semidarkness, semi-annual
super-
great amounts,
super-efficient, superman, superhuman,
bigger, better, etc.
superpower, superstar
sub-
below
subtitle, subnormal, subhuman, subway
over-
a) over
overrule, overview
b) too much
overconfident, overweight
19
Prefix/Suffix
under-
Usual Meaning
Examples
a) under
underwater, underwear
b) not enough
underpay, underpriced, underestimate
uni-, mono-
one
uniform, unicycle, monopoly, monotone
bi-
two
bicycle, biannual
trans-
across
translate, transportation
co-, con-,
together, with
co-author, cooperate, cohabit, connect,
col-, comex-
consensus, collect, community
a) former
b) out, more than,
very, outside
ex-husband, ex-friend, exit, exceed, excel
en-, -en
make
enrich, sweeten
-ology
study of
psychology, physiology, biology
-er, -or,
carrier, actor, driver, policeman, biologist,
-ful
person who
does/knows
something/
profession/ in the
style of
a) someone who is
affected by an action
b) someone who
does an action
with, has the quality
-less
without
careless, hopeless, rainless
-ify, -ize
to make
simplify, unify, dramatize, equalize
-able, -ible
can, having ability
avoidable, lovable, noticeable
extra-
-man, -ist,
-ian
-ee
extra-large, extra-curricular
mathematician, Machiavellian
employee, examinee, payee, interviewee,
absentee, divorcee, escapee
careful, beautiful, harmful
Suffixes often tell us what part of speech a word is:
Noun Markers
Verb Markers
Adjective Markers
er – worker
ate – isolate
al – natural
ist – scientist
fy, ify – simplify
ic – scientific
ism – nationalism
ize - criticize
ish – foolish
ment–development
en - shorten
ive – attractive
ness – illness
ous – religious
ship – citizenship
ful – beautiful
tion (sion, cion) -
less – homeless
attraction
(ly – lovely)
20
Adverb Markers
ly - slowly
Exercise 8
Based on your knowledge of prefixes and suffixes and the context, define the
bold words according to their meanings in the sentences.
1. My brother is interested in mythology. ______________________
2. I am immeasurably grateful to you for the kindness you have shown me.
______________________
3. Scientists hope that interplanetary flights will become more common in the
future. ______________________
4. Many Ethiopian families were reunited after Operation Solomon.
______________________
5. Transoceanic flights are often very tiring because one travels across time zones.
______________________
6. Substandard construction costs more in lives than it saves in materials.
______________________
7. How would George Eliot compare to a novelist like Jane Austen?
______________________
8. The children enlivened the old-age home with their visit.
______________________
9. The investment analyst’s misjudgment proved to be fatal, and he lost his job.
______________________
10. Maccabi Haifa outplayed Maccabi Tel Aviv in the game last night.
______________________
11. The government has an economic plan to counteract the effects of rising
inflation. ______________________
12. The malformation of the baby’s limbs was caused by drugs taken by his mother
during pregnancy. ______________________
13. When boys and girls are asked to fold an object, boys outperform girls.
______________________
14. Females are underrepresented in certain professions such as engineering.
______________________
21
Exercise 9
Based on the context and your knowledge of prefixes and suffixes, define the
underlined words.
1. After the king returned from exile, he was reinstated to his old position.
___________________
2. All of the animals were enclosed together at night so nothing could happen to
them. _____________________
3. After the old man lost two liters of blood, he got a blood transfusion.
_______________________
4. In the Six Day War, Israel pre-empted an Egyptian counterattack by destroying
their air force. ________________
____________________
5. I asked for directions, but the person I asked misdirected me.
______________________
6. It is illegal to falsify documents. __________________ ___________________
7. Even though the residents were forewarned about the storm, they were still
unprepared. ___________________
______________________
8. After his operation, Ron experienced some discomfort. ____________________
9. It is doubtful whether enabling criminals to escape their past is a good idea.
_____________________
_____________________
10. The co-founders of the company wrote an underappreciated book on business.
______________________
_____________________
11. Researchers have come to the inescapable conclusion that tests should be
redesigned to ensure that both sexes have an equal chance.
______________________
______________________
______________________
12. Whereas Judaism is a monotheistic religion, pagan tribes were polytheistic.
______________________
______________________
Exercise 10
Read the sentences below and decide which kind of word is missing (noun, verb,
adjective, or adverb). Then choose the correct form of the word in parentheses.
Note that the suffixes will help you.
1. John is a very _____________ person, so he _____________ on others for help.
(depends, dependent, dependable)
22
2. In his newspaper article, the _____________ expressed his disappointment with
the actor’s performance, but he didn’t ________________ the movie otherwise.
(criticize, critical, critic)
3. The Spanish ________________ of South America found that the Indians used
the cocoa bean and considered it valuable. The _______________ of the cocoa
bean affects us too.
(discovery, discoverers, discover)
4. After repairing his car, Bill took a shower so that he would be ________________
for the evening ceremony where his sports team was to receive a prize during a
special _________________.
(presenter, presentable, presentation)
5. The movie _________________ decided that the ________________ of the film
would cost too much money.
(production, produce, producer)
6. Although the _______________ was 70 years old, he was a very ____________
person. He ______________ participated in many volunteer _______________.
(active, activities, action, actor, actively)
7. A well-known ________________ was in Jerusalem recently to check on the
________________ of a new __________________ center for children.
(developmental, developer, development)
8. Mr. Powell, an _________________, is working on the government’s
_________________ policy.
(economic, economy, economist)
Exercise 11
Form words using the following prefixes and suffixes:
-ate
out-
antidis-
interintra-
semimal-
-able
-less
1. to live more/longer than: ___________live
2. within school competition: _________school competition
3. to make more intense: intense_______
4. a bad adjustment: ________adjustment
5. partly skilled: _________skilled
6. to charge too much money: ________charge
7. without any flaws: flaw___________
8. possible to wash: wash_______________
23
-ify
over-
Exercise 12
Match each beginning from column A with a suitable ending from column B by writing
the letter of the appropriate ending next to each opening. Define the words with
prefixes and suffixes.
Column A
Column B
______1. These twins are
a. I have looked for it everywhere but I
indistinguishable.
can’t find it!
______2. In underdeveloped
b. pre-determined his successful
countries
career.
______3. Talent and hard work since
c. No wonder! The man looked so
early childhood
strange!
______4. The social worker thinks
d. the economic situation is very
Johnny is a maltreated child;
unstable.
______5. This is a bi-monthly
e. We should do something to prevent
magazine.
this disaster.
______6. I think I have misplaced my
f. Only their parents can tell the
plane ticket.
difference.
______7. We have certainly
g. if you want to find out what it is
misjudged Mary’s abilities.
about.
______8. The ships collided in the
h. she must speak to his parents as
fog;
soon as possible!
______9. It’s a good idea to read the
i. No doubt, one day he will lose
foreword of a book
everything he has.
______10. That short rest revived me
j. many people died as a result.
completely
______11. If you want to strengthen
k. I am fresh and full of energy again!
your muscles,
______12. Jim is a reckless spender.
l. You will receive it on the fifteenth
and thirtieth of every month.
______13. Very soon, the disease will
m. First see it yourself and then
be transmitted everywhere.
decide.
______14. Never visit a foreign
n. She is doing well and will probably
country with preconceived ideas.
get a good mark.
______15. The child looked at the
o. exercise every morning.
stranger with distrust.
24
Exercise 13
Define the underlined words by using your knowledge of prefixes and suffixes. Note
that for some of the words, you must rely on the context as well.
Who’s Superstitious?
1. Many people who achieved great things were superstitious. For example, did you
know that Napoleon, the successful French general who won countless battles,
was afraid of cats? People tend to think that superstition is linked to ignorance,
but this is a misconception.
2. Many brilliant people have been superstitious, so we shouldn’t underestimate
superstitious people! Rousseau, the famous French philosopher, believed he
had a ghost for a companion. William Blake, an English writer and painter,
thought he was a brother to Socrates, who died in 399 B.C. And Sir Walter Scott
would never go to Melrose Abbey when the full moon shone brightly.
3. Superstitions usually arise when people try to find reasons for things that are
incomprehensible to them. Primitive societies created endless explanations for
illness, death, and natural events. People looked and wondered at the sky, and
developed senseless stories to account for the stars.
4. Even the age of science has not destroyed people’s misunderstanding of
irrational things. The following story is a good example. A panic shook Europe
when Haley’s comet was expected to appear in 1910. It seemed that whenever
this comet had appeared in the past, devastating events had taken place. In A.D.
66, for example, its appearance coincided with the fall of Jerusalem. So the
people in the twentieth century feared a repetition of a disaster. They were so
frightened that they over-reacted and even bought anti-comet pills and masks to
protect themselves from harmful fumes.
Next to each word below, write whether it is a noun, verb, adjective, or
adverb.
Paragraph 1:
superstitious ____ superstition ______ misconception _____
Paragraph 2:
brightly ________
Paragraph 3:
primitive _______ natural _________
Paragraph 4:
devastating ______
25
Chapter 3:
Sentence Structure
_____________________________________
Sometimes when you are reading, you may see a sentence that you don’t
understand – even though you know the meanings of all the words. To understand
such a sentence, you must start by finding its main parts – that is, you must
understand the structure of the sentence.
In this chapter, you will study the parts of sentences. This will help you understand
long, difficult sentences.
The Basic Sentence
The basic English sentence contains three main parts: the subject, the verb, and the
complement.
*The subject tells us who or what the sentence is about.
*The verb tells us what the subject does or what happens to the subject.
*The complement completes the information given by the subject and the verb.
Word order in English is very important. The subject comes before the verb, and the
complement follows the verb.
Example: John bought a book.
subject
verb
complement
Every basic sentence must contain a subject and a verb, but the complement is
optional.
26
Forms of Subjects and Verbs
The subject of a sentence may take different forms.
1. The subject may be one word.
Example: Detectives investigated the reasons for the accident.
Example: Reading is an important skill.
2. The subject may be a group of words.
Example: The researchers at the conference shared the results of
their experiments.
Example: To succeed in life requires talent and hard work.
3. The subject may be a clause (a group of words containing a verb).
Example: That Tom is here surprises me.
Example: How you spend your free time can affect the quality of
your work.
How can you identify a subject clause?
-Subject clauses begin with the following question words:
who, which, when, how, what, where, why, whose
If one of these words starts a sentence, and there is no question mark at the end,
then the subject is a clause.
-Sentences that begin with the following words have subject clauses:
whoever, whatever, whichever, whether
-When a sentence begins with the word “that,” the sentence may have a subject
clause or a regular subject.
Example: That girl is my sister. (regular subject)
Example: That Sandy travels a lot worries me. (subject clause)
The verb of a sentence may take different forms.
1. The verb may be one word.
Example: The news about the contest excited me.
2. The verb may be a group of words.
Example: He has been waiting for the mail.
Example: I could have told him about the new teacher.
27
*Note: a. If a verb ends in “ing” and has no helping verb, it is not the verb of
the sentence.
Example: The instructors of the driving school had a lot of patience.
b. If a verb has the word “to” before it, it is not the verb of the sentence.
Example: The decision to introduce more subjects into the curriculum
was approved by the rector.
A sentence may have more than one subject or more than one verb. (These
subjects and verbs will be connected with the words “and” or “or.”)
Example: The mothers and their babies were tested for the disease.
Example: The scientists discussed, revised, and tested the new theory.
A sentence may contain some introductory words before the subject (usually these
words will be a description of the time or place of the sentence).
Example: In the morning, the students prepared for the test.
Exercise 1
Divide each of the following sentences into its basic elements (subject, verb,
complement). The first one is done for you. Note: some sentences may not contain
a complement.
S
V
C
1. The middle child in a family is often called “the sandwich.”
2. At the meeting, supporters of the legislation argued convincingly in support of
their case.
3. These pants should not have been put in the washing machine.
4. In the last month, my mother and father traveled to Europe, arranged my sister’s
wedding, and celebrated their wedding anniversary.
5. What the teacher said was of great interest to the class.
6. For a slow child with learning problems to become a successful student will be
difficult.
7. To smoke on board a plane is strictly forbidden.
8. Whether or not I take vacation depends on the amount of work I get done this
week.
9. Writing about personal experiences is a good way to practice language skills.
10. Whoever thinks that teaching is an easy job should try it some time!
11. How we divide the work up is our decision.
12. Living next to the university can be very convenient.
28
Noun Groups
Many sentences contain noun groups. A noun group is made up of a noun together
with all the words that modify (describe) it.
Example: book = noun
an interesting new book on the history of Israel = noun group
The subject of a sentence is generally a noun or noun group (if it is not a clause).
Noun groups can also appear in the complement.
It is important to be able to identify and understand noun groups in sentences
because it will help you to break up sentences into their elements and thus to
understand them better.
There are several ways of modifying nouns to form noun groups:
Adjectives
Adjectives come before nouns in English.
Examples: a beautiful girl
a spontaneous party
an unbelievable story
Adjectives that Look Like Verbs
A. verb+ing: These come before the noun, and describe an action being done
by the noun.
Examples:
a screaming baby (a baby that is screaming)
a falling building (a building that is falling)
an exciting friend (a friend who is exciting)
B. V3 (third form of the verb): These come before the noun, and describe the
state of the noun.
Examples:
an excited friend (a friend who is excited by something)
a lost tribe (a tribe which is lost)
a broken tooth (a tooth that is broken)
Note the difference in meaning between the two forms:
boiling water
boiled water
boring teacher
bored teacher
amazing magician
amazed magician
29
Nouns that Function as Adjectives
If there are two (or more) nouns in a row (without other words or punctuation
between them), the last noun is the head (main) noun, and the preceding noun
functions as an adjective (description/modifier).
Examples: a drama teacher (a teacher who teaches drama)
a hotel room (a room in a hotel)
a history book fair (a fair for books about history)
Note that the order of the nouns is very important:
a race horse (a horse that runs races)
a horse race (a race that horses run)
a police state (a state that is controlled by the police)
state police (the police of the state)
Prepositional Phrases
These come after the noun.
A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition + a noun
Examples: the car on the street
the book near the chair
the woman with the red coat on the stairs
Exercise 2
Complete the following sentences with noun+noun groups. The first one has been
done for you.
1. a. The student wrote a report about the book he had read. He handed the
BOOK REPORT into the teacher on time.
b. The teacher wrote his students’ reports in his book. Unfortunately, he lost his
REPORT BOOK before the end of the year.
2. a. They own a house where guests can stay as long as they wish. Their
__________________ is very well run and has a good reputation.
b. The Smith family has a guest in their house who is very unpleasant. When their
________________ comes home late, he never turns off the lights when he goes
to bed.
30
3. a. Yesterday we bought our pet a new house. We placed the
___________________ in the garden under the pine tree.
b. My sister brought a pet into our house. We have never had a
___________________ before.
4. a. Daphne bought many vegetables to prepare some soup. The
___________________ she cooked was delicious.
b. In the market, the vegetables for soup are cheaper than the ones for salads.
We bought some ___________________ and paid very little.
5. a. When John was buying an apartment, he compared a few banks that gave
mortgages. Choosing a reliable _____________________ was very important.
b. When John bought a new apartment he had to get a mortgage from a bank.
He had to work many hours to pay the ___________________ back.
Exercise 3
Read the following sentences and identify the noun groups. Mark the head (main)
noun in each of the noun groups and answer the questions that follow.
1. The department needs more social science research workers.
What does the department need?
a. more social workers
b. more social sciences
c. more research
d. more workers
2. University restaurant improvement suggestions will be welcomed by the Student
Union.
What will the Student Union welcome?
a. a university restaurant
b. improvements in the restaurant
c. suggestions for improvement
d. improved suggestions
3. The book deals with the slum dwellers community organization.
What does the book deal with?
a. slum dwellers
b. the community
c. the organization of the community
4. Students should be put on tenure promotion committees.
What should we do to students?
a. give them promotion
b. put them on committees
31
c. give them tenure
5. The students must face real life learning situations.
What must the students face?
a. real life
b. learning about life
c. situations
6. The teacher was appointed to the Biological Sciences Curriculum Committee.
What was the teacher appointed to?
a. the Biology department
b. the committee
c. the science curriculum
7. Anyone who violates International Amateur Athletic Federation prohibitions
against steroid use should be banned.
What might some people violate?
a. prohibitions against steroid use
b. the Federation
c. steroid use
d. Amateur Athletes
Adjective Clauses
An adjective clause is a group of words that comes after the noun it describes. It
contains a verb of its own. (This verb is not the verb of the sentence.) Adjective
clauses answer the questions “which” or “which one.”
Adjective clauses are marked by the words who, whom, whose, which, that, when,
where.
Examples: The students who worked hard passed the test.
The house where I was born has fallen down.
The friend that I told you about passed his driving test.
Note the difference between the following two sentences:
a. The children, who wanted to play soccer, ran outside.
b. The children who wanted to play soccer ran outside.
Words between commas can be taken out of the sentence without changing its
meaning. Thus, sentence “a” says that all the children ran outside. (By the way, the
children also want to play soccer.) Sentence “b” says that only the children who
wanted to play soccer ran outside.
Exercise 4
Read the following pairs of sentences carefully. Answer the question after each pair.
1. a. The students who want to join the trip should read the information.
b. The students, who want to join the trip, should read the information.
Which sentence implies that all the students want to join the trip? _______
32
2. a. My cousin who is a tennis champion is in Europe at a tournament now.
b. My cousin, who is a tennis champion, is in Europe at a tournament now.
Which sentence implies that I have only one cousin? _____
3. a. The trees which we planted many years ago give us a lot of shade.
b. The trees, which we planted many years ago, give us a lot of shade.
Which sentence says that all the trees give us shade? _____
4. a. Please don’t eat the peaches which are green.
b. Please don’t eat the peaches, which are green.
Which sentence implies that you may eat some of the peaches? _____
5. a. The children who ate the ice cream were sick the next day.
b. The children, who ate the ice cream, were sick the next day.
Which sentence implies that it was the ice cream that made the children sick? _____
Exercise 5
Circle the adjective clauses in the following sentences, and draw an arrow to the
nouns they modify. The first one has been done for you.
1. My Aunt Linda, whose son is working with refugees in Africa, now lives in Israel.
2. All these people benefit from the environment in which they work.
3. Another factor that may contribute to the good health of these people is their
isolation.
4. Most of the longest-lived peoples had parents and grandparents who also
reached very old ages.
5. The small box which is in the corner of the room should be removed.
6. Let’s meet in the store where they sell health food without preservatives.
7. Experience is the only teacher that gives the test first and the lesson later.
8. For every problem there is a solution which is simple, neat, and wrong.
9. People who support the “nature” theory of behavior believe that our personalities
and behavior patterns are largely determined by biological and genetic factors.
10. Factories that produce heavy machinery dispose of waste materials which are
dangerous to health into lakes that are intended to serve human needs.
33
Exercise 6
Read the following paragraph and circle all the adjective clauses. Then answer the
questions that follow.
In the past decade, many people have become aware of the dangers of noise
pollution, which can lead to many health problems. People who are concerned about
the hazards of noise can reduce this pollution in many ways. For example, products
that usually generate a lot of noise, such as lawnmowers and vacuum cleaners, are
now available in sound-reduced versions. In addition, people can use materials
which absorb sound in their homes. Carpeting, which absorbs sound and also helps
keep rooms warm, can be installed instead of hard flooring. Cork and fabric can be
used in rooms that tend to be noisy. Finally, people who make a lot of noise can
become less noisy. They can learn to avoid shouting, which makes noise and leads
to stress; they can fix doors and windows that slam; and they can play radios, TV
sets, and stereos at levels that are not too loud.
Questions:
1. What do we know about noise pollution?
___________________________________________________________
2. Who can reduce noise pollution?
___________________________________________________________
3. Lawnmowers and vacuum cleaners are examples of equipment that ____
___________________________________________________________
4. Which type of materials should people use in their homes?
___________________________________________________________
5. What are some advantages of carpeting?
___________________________________________________________
6. Where should cork and fabric be used?
___________________________________________________________
7. Who should become less noisy?
___________________________________________________________
8. What are some problems with shouting?
___________________________________________________________
9. Which doors and windows should be fixed?
___________________________________________________________
10. How loud should people play radios, TVs, and stereos?
___________________________________________________________
34
Reduced Adjective Clauses
Sometimes, the adjective clause marker (who, whom, whose, which, that, when,
where) or in some cases, the adjective clause marker and the verb be, are taken out.
That is, the adjective clause is reduced (made shorter).
Examples:
1. The information that he discovered was interesting. 
The information he discovered was interesting.
2. The neighbor who is responsible for my children is not at home. 
The neighbor responsible for my children is not at home.
3. The movie which is playing at the mall is sold out. 
The movie playing at the mall is sold out.
4. The equipment that was broken yesterday cost a thousand dollars. 
The equipment broken yesterday cost a thousand dollars.
How can you identify reduced adjective clauses?
1.
There are some patterns to look for:
noun + adjective (example 2);
noun + Ving (example 3)
noun + V3 (example 4)
When you see these patterns, you know that the words after the noun are an
adjective clause modifying the noun.
2. In some cases, you can only identify the reduced adjective clause by reading
to the end of the sentence and seeing which words go together.
Exercise 7
Circle the reduced adjective clauses in the following sentences, and draw
an arrow to the nouns they modify. The first one has been done for you.
1. The man responsible for the administration of the hospital refused to consider
the request.
2. One official had left evidence crucial to the lawyers of the defendant at the bottom
of a desk drawer for five years.
3. Areas served by city mail delivery must have paved streets.
4. Wisdom is the reward you get for a lifetime of listening when you would have
preferred to talk.
35
5. Questions answered incorrectly will be discussed in class or students will be
directed to sources containing the necessary information.
6. Classified information passed on to the wrong people caused a serious crisis.
7.
Lectures attended by more than a hundred students are held in the
main auditorium.
8. Texts addressed to the educated reader rely on shared information called
“cultural literacy.”
9. An experiment conducted by the group of students was successful.
10. Almost all of us want things we do not need and fail to want things we do need.
11. Scientists working with radiation wear protective suits.
12. The best thing you can give children, next to good habits, is good memories.
Exercise 8
Circle the adjective clauses in the following sentences, and draw an arrow to the
nouns they modify. Put a box around the main verbs of the sentences. The first one
has been done for you.
*Note: Some sentences may not have any adjective clauses.
1. The man standing next to the door
is my neighbor.
2. I was told to put my clothes in a cardboard box, which was later shipped home.
3. Many plays appearing now on Broadway are worth seeing.
4. The teacher whom I greatly admire was presented the award for outstanding
service.
5. The two lions brought recently from Africa paced back and forth in their cage.
6. Dr. Sellers, who was a captain in the air force before he entered medical school,
operated on my father.
7. The man being introduced by the master of ceremonies will probably win the
contest.
8. Everyone knows that an honest person never lies.
9. The lawyer who was appointed by the court to defend the accused murderer is an
expert on criminal law.
10. The teacher administering the exam spent most of the time at the back of the
room.
36
A noun may be modified by more than one modifier of more than one type.
Exercise 9
Underline the head noun in each of the following noun groups.
-our first house guest
-an exciting new film
-hungry man-eating sharks
-a growing animal population
-a paid telephone bill
-a gold medal winner
-a visiting professor who is doing research on monkeys
-an exciting, creative experiment done by a famous biology professor at
Harvard
Exercise 10
Put all the noun modifiers in parentheses. Mark the head noun of each noun group
and the main verbs of the sentences. The first one has been done for you.
head noun
verb
head noun
1. The (bored, tired) students daydreamed in the (hot, stuffy) classroom.
2. The clever little boy who had been dressed beautifully by his mother gave the
flowers to the visiting queen.
3. Complex computer systems created to absorb statistical information may present
problems to technicians inexperienced in the field.
4. The cruel, merciless sun shone down on the traveling group and increased their
desperate need to find a source of purified water.
5. The October Revolution’s amazingly easy victory occurred in a totalitarian country
with a despotic and centralized bureaucratic system.
6. The weekend newspaper supplement is read by many regular contributors when
they sit on the golden sands of the Tel-Aviv beach.
7. The mathematics department curriculum committee will present its findings to the
current rector.
8. The large white semi-detached house that had always been the object of Jane’s
dreams was bought by a member of a visiting basketball team.
9. The amateur gardener used the lawnmower too near the blossoming flowers.
10. Office staff bored with their work often gossip with friends whom they can
reach by telephone.
37
ADVERBIALS – Expansion on the Main Clause
Adverbials give us additional information about the action or situation in the sentence
and answer questions such us:
When? Where? Why? How? For what purpose? On what condition? In spite of what?
There are several types of adverbials:
1. One word
Examples: He speaks English fluently.
I saw her yesterday.
2. A group of words introduced by a preposition:
on, at, with, despite, in spite of, because of, as a result of, under, between,
above, in order to, etc.
Examples: Despite the bad weather, we went hiking.
Jane arrived in the evening.
3. A dependent (subordinate) clause
A dependent clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb of its own,
but is NOT the main part of the sentence; it explains or expands the main clause
and cannot stand alone.
Examples:
-She won’t make better progress unless she works harder.
-The man ran because he wanted to arrive on time.
-Although she invited him, he didn’t come.
-When our family came to Eilat, we saw the coral reefs.
-As inflation rises, people spend less money because the price of everyday
items goes up.
Dependent clauses start with certain connectives called subordinators (“dependent
markers”). The following connectives introduce dependent clauses:
Time
Cause/Effect
Contrast
Condition
Manner
Purpose
when
before
after
until
as long as
since
as
while
as soon as
because
since
as
that’s why
though
although
even though
even if
whereas
while
if
unless
in case
as if
in order that
38
Exercise 11
A. Circle the subordinators in the following sentences.
B. Underline the main clauses in each sentence.
C. Divide the main clauses into their subjects, verbs, and complements.
D. Answer the comprehension questions following the sentences.
*The first one has been partially done for you.
1.
S
V
C
When Michael was eight, his third grade teacher / noticed / his leadership skills
after she gave him an opportunity to lead a small group of children.
How did the teacher discover Michael’s leadership skills?
____________________________________________________________________
How old was Michael then? ______________________________________________
2. If children do not have words to use, their minds are, inevitably, a jumble of
responses to which they can react only emotionally, often with frustration.
Under what conditions do children’s minds become a jumble of responses?
____________________________________________________________________
What happens when the children’s minds become a jumble of responses?
____________________________________________________________________
3. While two out of three American families consisted of a father, mother, and their
children thirty years ago, today less than one family out of five fits that description.
What is today’s American family contrasted with?
____________________________________________________________________
Describe the situation of today’s American family.
____________________________________________________________________
4. Physically handicapped children benefit from art because their motor control
improves as they attempt to make more delicate movements with their hands and
as they gradually impose more control upon themselves.
In what way do physically handicapped children benefit from art?
____________________________________________________________________
When does their motor control improve?
____________________________________________________________________
39
Exercise 12
Read the sentences below and answer the questions which follow.
Note how paying attention to the connectives helps you find the answers.
1. Although many laws affecting public housing were passed in Britain during the
nineteenth century, very little housing was constructed using public money before
the First World War.
-What is the main part of the sentence?
_________________________________________________________
-Why is it surprising that very little public housing was constructed before the First
World War in Britain? _________________________________
2. The soldiers quickly put their ammunition into the tent, for the thunder warned
them that a storm was imminent.
-What is the main part of the sentence?
_________________________________________________________
-Why did the soldiers put their ammunition into the tent?
__________________________________________________________
3. Whereas racial prejudices were often expressed among the lower classes,
members of the upper classes did not overtly disclose their attitudes.
-What is the main part of the sentence?
_________________________________________________________
-To what does the writer contrast the behavior of the upper classes?
__________________________________________________________
4. If we reduce the number of films showing brutal behavior, we may reduce the
level of violence among young people.
-What is the main part of the sentence?
_________________________________________________________
-Under which condition could we possibly reduce the level of violence among
young people?
__________________________________________________________
40
5. Because much office work is boring, many typists suffer “illnesses” of different
kinds, thus breaking the monotony of the week.
-Why do many typists become “ill”?
__________________________________________________________
-What is the result of the “illness” of many typists?
__________________________________________________________
6. After managers of factories complained to the government about shortage of
staff, it was decided to recruit women for work in industry in order to keep the
economy moving.
-When was it decided to recruit women?
__________________________________________________________
-Why was it decided to recruit women?
__________________________________________________________
7. As medical science has advanced greatly in the past decade, many people are
leading active lives for twenty years after retirement.
-What is the main part of the sentence?
_________________________________________________________
-What is the result of advances in modern science?
__________________________________________________________
8. The people of Delphi threw Aesop off a cliff to his death since they were tired of
listening to his fables and never receiving a straight answer to their questions.
-What is the main part of the sentence?
_________________________________________________________
-Why did the people of Delphi kill Aesop?
__________________________________________________________
9. Even if one knows nothing of the Count’s early political activities, of the deep
sympathy for the newly secured feudal conditions in Germany which he showed
soon after the 1848 revolution, one is forced to admit that his book is nothing
more than a description of a class struggle in spite of its size and its claims to a
scientific basis.
-What is the main part of the sentence?
_________________________________________________________
-Why is it surprising that the book is just a description of a class struggle?
_________________________________________________________
41
Exercise 13
Read the following passage. Put all the noun modifiers and adverbials in
parentheses. Circle the main subjects and verbs. Finally, answer the
questions after the passage.
1.
About three years ago, experts in a South African national park studying animal
behavior noticed that white rhinos were being killed at a rate of about one a month.
2.
When the same phenomenon occurred in another national park, they decided to
study the problem because it was not clear who was killing the rhinos.
3.
The wounds
of the beasts, caused by sharp objects and not gunshots, indicated that man, who is
the usual suspect in such cases, was innocent this time.
4.
It turned out that young,
aggressive male elephants, brought to the parks from Kruger National Park in order
to establish an elephant population in them, had killed the rhinos.
5.
The relocation of
these parentless elephant calves, originally used to growing up in groups, was a
major experiment in social engineering which had unexpected results.
Questions:
1. What problem is described in this passage? _____________________________
2. Who discovered the problem? ________________________________________
3. Rhinos were killed by man (circle one). YES / NO
Quote from the text to support your answer (no more than 10-12 words).
________________________________________________________________
4. Complete: Rhinos were killed by _____________________________________.
5. Answer the following questions about elephants. (To do so, you will have to look
through the information in parentheses.)
a. List all the descriptions of elephants that appear in this passage.
________________________________________________________________
b. Find and mark the place in the passage where the word “elephant” is used as
an adjective (to describe a noun).
42
Chapter 4:
References
_________________________________________
References are words that point (refer) to other words in the text – either
one word or a group of words, a sentence, or group of sentences. Usually
the word refers to something mentioned before it in the text, but
sometimes it refers to something that comes after it.
Examples:
-The plan was adopted by the directors of the firm, but it was never put into
practice.
The reference word “it” refers back to “the plan.”
-This is how to read a text: first survey it, then skim it, and finally, read it.
The reference word “this” refers forward to “first survey it, then skim it,
and finally, read it.”
If you are not sure of what is being referred to by the reference word, try
the substitution test: Replace the reference word with the word(s) you
think it points to and then read the sentence to see if it makes sense in the
context.
43
The following is a list of some common reference words:
1. it, he/she (they)
Example: Many people believe that they are above average in intelligence.
2. this (these), that (those)
Example: Very often decisions appear correct in theory but do not work in practice.
There are many reasons for this.
3. one (ones)
Example: Most of my history teacher’s lectures were tedious, but the one about
Napoleon was very exciting.
Example: All of these candies are delicious, but I like the chocolate ones best.
4. such (+ noun)
Example: Based on current research, many scientists have concluded that people
should eat a lot of soy. But others have produced evidence contradicting such a
conclusion.
5. so
Example: My mother thinks that it’s better to live at home while attending university,
but I don’t think so.
Example: Most doctors warn their patients against overeating, but people do so
anyway.
6. the former, the latter
Example: There are two types of people: people who enjoy housework, and people
who find it a nuisance. The latter are the majority.
7. there, then
Example: During adolescence, teenagers start to depend more on their peers than on
their families. It is then that having good friends is most important.
Example: My trip to Europe was highly significant, because the people I met there
became lifelong friends.
44
Exercise 1
Find the references of the underlined words.
1. The Koala, a native of Australia, gets all its nourishment from one tree, the
eucalyptus; it doesn’t even need to add water to its diet.
its __________________
it __________________
2. The running of the bulls in Spain is an annual event famous all around the world.
Every July, a group of bulls is released to charge through the city’s streets.
Ahead, behind and all around them are thousands of men and women seeking
the thrill of running with the bulls and impatient to share their feelings about it.
them __________________
it __________________
their __________________
3. Recent statistics show that Argentina is a Third World country. Like other
countries described by this term, it has a large foreign debt.
this term __________________
it __________________
4. The woman who was hypnotized confused two visual images, one of a mother
singing to her baby, and the other of a girl playing the piano. These grew into a
single impression in her mind, so she remembered something that hadn’t happened.
these __________________
5. If you want to lose weight, avoid eating fried foods. Such foods contain a lot of fat
and are very unhealthy.
such __________________
6. Why do so many people get addicted to chocolate? It can’t simply be that it
tastes good. So do popcorn and pizza, but the words popaholic and pizzaholic
haven’t forced their way into the American lexicon the way chocoholic has.
it __________________
their ________________
so do __________________
7. Scientists believe that there are two distinct types of twins. The ones that
developed from the same ovum are difficult to distinguish, while those that
developed from two separate ova are no more alike than are regular brothers and
sisters.
ones __________________
those ___________________
45
8. Pediatric science has greatly changed its approach to baby care. For a while doctors
said mothers shouldn’t feed their babies more than once every four hours. Now they
admit this was wrong. For a while they told pregnant women to keep weight gain
minimal (and some women did so by smoking more cigarettes). Now they have found
this wrong too.
they __________________
this (1) __________________
did so __________________
this (2) __________________
9. Many of us don’t realize that people from so-called primitive tribes often have keener
perception and more highly developed powers of observation than most of us. The
former results from their vast experience in surviving the wilds of the jungle.
the former __________________
their __________________
10. Some professional writers resort to strange, almost ritualistic strategies to go on
with their writing. Victor Hugo supposedly wrote at the same time every day in
his study – without clothes on! His servant was ordered to lock away all Hugo’s
clothes until each day’s writing was done. Apparently, the method worked –
witness Les Miserables.
their __________________
the method __________________
11. It is not uncommon for someone to feel quite sure that he was present when a
certain event took place while, in fact, he was not. This is a result of his having
heard many stories about the event.
he __________________
this __________________
12. The study investigated the effect of day care on 1,364 children from birth to age 3. More
than 20% were cared for full time by their mothers. The rest were in day-care centers or
in the homes of paid caregivers. The latter spent 30 hours or more each week in those
settings.
the latter __________________
those __________________
13. Half a century ago, Argentina’s per capita production was twice as high as Italy’s
and almost the same as that of France.
that __________________
46
Exercise 2
Read the following article and answer the questions. Notice that in order to answer
the questions, you must understand the references in the article.
Going to School
Excerpted from Childhood: Pathways of Discovery
by Sheldon White and Barbara Notkin White
1. It has been argued that an infant under three who is cared for outside the home
may suffer because of the separation from his parents. The British psychoanalyst
John Bowlby maintains that separation from the parents during the sensitive
“attachment” period from birth to three may scar a child’s personality and
predispose him to emotional problems in later life. Some people have drawn the
conclusion from Bowlby’s work that children should not be subjected to day care
before the age of three because of the parental separation it entails, and many
people do believe this. But there are also some arguments against such a strong
conclusion.
2. Firstly, anthropologists point out that the secluded love affair between children
and parents found in modern societies does not usually exist in traditional
societies. For example, among the Ngoni tribe the father and mother of a child
do not rear their infant alone – far from it. But traditional societies are so different
from modern societies that comparisons based on just one factor are hard to
interpret.
3. Secondly, common sense tells us that day care would not be so widespread
today if parents, caretakers or pediatricians found that children had problems with
it. But Bowlby’s analysis raises the possibility that early day care has delayed
effects. The possibility that such care might lead to, say, more mental illness or
crime 15 or 20 years later can only be explored by the use of statistics. Studies
of this kind have not yet been carried out, and even if they were, the results would
be complicated and controversial. Thirdly, in the last decade, there have been a
number of careful American studies of children in day care, and they have
uniformly reported that day care had a neutral or slightly positive effect on
children’s development. But tests that were used to measure this development
are not widely enough accepted to settle the issue.
47
4. But whatever the long-term effects, parents sometimes find the immediate effects
difficult to deal with. Children under three are likely to protest at leaving their
parents and show unhappiness. At the age of three or three and a half almost all
children find the transition to nursery easy, and this is undoubtedly why more and
more parents make use of child care at this time. The matter, then, is far from
clear-cut, though experience and available evidence indicate that early care is
reasonable for infants.
I.
Reference Questions:
1. Who may be predisposed to more emotional problems in life as a result of early
separation?
________________________________________________________________
2. What is the "strong conclusion" mentioned in lines 8-9?
________________________________________________________________
3.
What may lead to more mental illness or crime?
________________________________________________________________
4. What shows a neutral or slightly positive effect of day care on children's
development?
________________________________________________________________
5.
a. When do most parents send their children to day care?
________________________________________________________________
b. Why do they do this at this particular time?
________________________________________________________________
48
II. General Comprehension:
1. Fill in the chart to indicate the arguments and counterarguments presented in this
text.
For early childcare
Against early childcare
2. What is the author’s opinion? He is FOR / AGAINST / NEUTRAL ABOUT
early childcare. Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
49
Chapter 5:
Connectives
_____________________________________
Read the following two paragraphs. Which one is clearer? Why?
1. Although we would like to picture the family as safe from violent conflict and
abuse, this is all too often not the case. There are few other groups in American
society in which violence occurs more frequently. The family is vulnerable to
violence for a number of reasons. Americans make a large emotional investment
in their family relationships. The words and actions of family members are rarely
viewed unemotionally. Small family disagreements can easily turn into big
conflicts. Our culture condones violence – in sports and in movies and television
programs; physical aggression comes to seem less unusual in the family. The
isolation of nuclear families makes violence less visible and less under social
control. Our strong belief in the privacy of the family frequently makes police,
social workers, and even well-meaning relatives and friends hesitant to interfere.
Family violence reflects cultural attitudes toward those who are its main victims –
children, wives, and the elderly.
2. Although we would like to picture the family as safe from violent conflict and
abuse, this is all too often not the case. In fact, there are few other groups in
American society in which violence occurs more frequently. The family is
vulnerable to violence for a number of reasons. For one thing, Americans make
a large emotional investment in their family relationships, so the words and
actions of family members are rarely viewed unemotionally. As a result, small
family disagreements can easily turn into big conflicts. A second reason is that
our culture condones violence – in sports and in movies and television programs;
physical aggression thus comes to seem less unusual in the family. Additionally,
the isolation of nuclear families makes violence less visible and less under social
control. For example, our strong belief in the privacy of the family frequently
makes police, social workers, and even well-meaning relatives and friends
hesitant to interfere. Finally, and most critically, family violence reflects cultural
attitudes toward those who are its main victims – children, wives, and the elderly.
The second paragraph was clearer than the first because it had words that show
relationships between ideas. These words are called connectives.
Connectives, which are also known as transitions or markers, have several
functions:
*They connect ideas and show relationships.
*They can help us understand the organization of paragraphs and texts.
*They may help us predict what will come next in the text.
50
Exercise 1
Read the following sentences and circle the words that show relationships.
1. One reason Marian left Jack is that he borrowed her credit cards without asking.
Another reason is that he used the cards to buy gifts for other women.
2. Many believe that Frankenstein is a monster. However, “Frankenstein” is the
name of the doctor who created the monster, which was never named.
3. My grandmother doesn’t hear well anymore. For instance, whenever I say, “Hi,
Granny,” she answers, “Fine, just fine.”
4. Although Tony wanted to watch the late movie on television, his mother sent him
to bed early.
5. Because the top of the TV gets warm after it has been on for a while, my cat likes
to sleep up there.
6. The door lock on my car broke. As a result, someone stole the car while it was
unlocked.
7. Paranoid people often believe that someone is plotting against them. Moreover,
they may believe that everyone is talking about them and staring at them.
8. The button factory was built near the river since it made buttons out of shells
found there.
9. Many animals such as the great auk are extinct now.
10. My friend Ellen is so afraid of burglars that she had her wooden door replaced
with a steel one. She also had iron bars inserted on all her apartment windows.
11. The fire had quickly destroyed nearby telephone lines. Consequently, people
were unable to call the fire department.
12. Like her brother, Sonya will go to Hebrew University.
13. To change a flat tire, first you must loosen all the bolts. Then you can take the
wheel off the car.
List the words you circled in groups according to their functions. Then assign a title to each
group.
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
one reason
another reason
_____________
_____________
51
_____________
Connectives
*Words with more than one meaning
TIME / ORDER
ADDITION
COMPARISON
CONTRAST
*first
*then
*next
*since
before
after
*as
until
previously
*while
when
often
frequently
rarely
seldom
one
not only(…but also)
also
besides
apart from
aside from
as well as
too
another
in addition
additionally
moreover
furthermore
*next
firstly, second(ly)
*first, second, third
first of all, second of
all
last of all
finally
And
like
just like
just as…so
equally
correspondingly
*as (…as)
likewise
similar(ly)
neither…nor
both
in the same way
in a similar way
in a similar
fashion/manner
but
however
yet
although
(even) though
instead
rather than
still
conversely
nevertheless
nonetheless
notwithstanding
on the other hand
despite
in spite of
*while
in contrast (to)
on the contrary
unlike
more than
(tall)er…than
whereas
ILLUSTRATION
CAUSE (REASON)
EFFECT (RESULT)
for example
for instance
to illustrate
such as
*thus
including
that is
e.g.
i.e.
namely
specifically
a case in point
:
( )
*as
*since
for
because (of)
stem from
result from
as a result of
as a consequence of
on account of
owing to
due to
on the grounds that
inasmuch as
if…(*then)
consequently
as a consequence
as a result
result in
bring about
cause
lead to
therefore
*thus
so
so…that
*then
hence
thereby
accordingly
52
Connectives of Time / Order and Addition
Exercise 2
Read the following paragraphs and circle the connectives. Then answer the
questions that follow.
1. In the convection process, water from the bottom of a heating pot begins to move
faster. The water then begins to expand and rise, to be replaced by cold water
from the upper regions of the pot. After this heated water gets to the top, it cools
and sinks, to be replaced by newly heated water from the bottom.
List the steps in the convection process.
a. ________________________________________________________________
b. ________________________________________________________________
c. The heated water gets to the top of the pot.
d. ________________________________________________________________
2. Tokyo, the capital city of Japan, is full of loudspeakers and amplifiers. A typical
morning hour this summer sounds like this: at seven o’clock, electric music roars
up and down the narrow streets to welcome children to school; this is followed by
announcements by loudspeakers in the streets telling residents to think about the
coming elections; next, people are told politely through another network of
amplifiers not to be remiss about putting their rubbish out on time; and then come
the final intrusions of the hour – first, electronic wailings from the local vendor of
sweet potatoes, seeking customers, and then, a shrill jingle from the approaching
waste-paper collector’s van.
What is the purpose of the noise in Tokyo?
a. _______________________________________________________________
b.________________________________________________________________
c.________________________________________________________________
d.________________________________________________________________
e.________________________________________________________________
53
3. The simplest way of coping with stress is to modify or remove its source – for
example, by leaving a stressful job. Obviously, this is often impossible, which is
why learning to manage stress is so important. There are a number of things you
can do to manage the daily stress in your life. First, you can become involved in
any type of full-body exercise. Because stress prepares the body for action, its
effects can be broken up by using the body. Secondly, meditation may quiet the
body and promote relaxation. Meditation is easy to learn – taking an expensive
course is unnecessary. Also be aware that listening to or playing music, taking
nature walks, enjoying hobbies, and the like can give effects similar to meditation.
Finally, progressive relaxation can be used to relax systematically, completely,
and by choice. The basic idea is to tighten all the muscles in a given area of the
body and then voluntarily relax them. In this way it is possible, with practice, to
greatly reduce tension.
What can you do to manage daily stress?
a. ________________________________________________________________
b.________________________________________________________________
c.________________________________________________________________
d.________________________________________________________________
4. It has already been proven that cigarette smoking causes harm to health. In
addition to diseases of the lungs and diseases of the heart caused by smoking,
there is also clear evidence (a study done on soldiers in the Israeli Army) that
smokers are 50 per cent more likely to get the common cold. Moreover, smoking
by pregnant women can cause low birth weight and birth defects. Dr. Susan
Harlap of the Hebrew University found that the risk of miscarriage in pregnant
women who smoke is ten times greater than for non-smokers.
Apart from increasing one’s chances of getting a cold, what are 5 other dangers of
cigarette smoking mentioned in the paragraph?
a. ________________________________________________________________
b.________________________________________________________________
c.________________________________________________________________
d.________________________________________________________________
e.________________________________________________________________
54
Connectives of Comparison
Connectives of comparison indicate that two things (or people or ideas) are similar.
Thus, when you see this type of relationship in a text, you must understand:
a. which two things are being compared, and
b. what is similar about them.
Exercise 3
Read the following sentences and circle the connectives. Then fill in the blanks to
explain the comparisons.
1. When individuals communicate, they are more likely to solve their problems. In a
similar fashion, countries can best solve their problems through communication.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
2. Just as a car’s oil must be changed regularly for it to operate smoothly, so we
must have regular checkups with our doctors to maintain our health.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
3. A movie’s success often depends upon how it is marketed. Similarly, promotion is
important in making a book a bestseller.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
4. Like any factory, cells need energy to operate.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
5. Neither weather forecasters nor fortune tellers can accurately predict the future.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
6. Some authors keep writing the same type of books over and over. Likewise,
movie producers keep making the same type of movies.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
55
7. Students taking lower level mathematics courses are as likely to fail as those in
the advanced levels if they don’t take the course requirements seriously.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
8. Both amateur and professional writers need to revise their writing repeatedly in
order to produce quality work
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
9. The legislation was passed with relative ease because the liberal and
conservative members of parliament were equally in favor of the new law.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
10. The Israeli university students were against enlarging class sizes in order to lower
tuition, just like their counterparts in other countries.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? They both ____________________________________
Exercise 4
Read the following paragraphs. Circle all the connectives, and then answer
the questions.
1. Raising houseplants involves nearly as much care and knowledge as raising
children. First, both plants and children are sensitive to their environments. For
example, a plant will grow faster and be much healthier if it is raised in an
environment of tender, loving care. The same is true for a child, who will be happier
and healthier if his parents love and nurture him. Similarly, proper care of
houseplants requires a basic knowledge of plants on the part of the owner. He must
know, for example, which of his plants need direct sunlight and which need to be kept
in shady places, and how much water each plant requires for the best growth and
appearance. Parents, too, must have a basic knowledge of their children’s needs in
order to provide what is necessary for the best physical and mental development.
Finally, the owner of houseplants must be willing to provide the best possible care for
his plants. A child needs time and energy from his parents, too, to play with him, to
talk to him, and to care for him. Generally speaking, happy, healthy plants and
children are the result of extra time, knowledge, and energy.
56
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
List all the similarities between them.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. People who move to a foreign country go through an adjustment process that often
resembles what newlyweds experience. The first two weeks are the “honeymoon
stage,” characterized by a rosy fascination with all aspects of the foreign culture. The
architecture, food, and people all seem clever and charming. As in marriage,
however, reality sets in over the next few months, during the “disillusionment stage.”
The husband must deal with stockings hanging in the bathroom, and the wife with
clothes on the floor. Similarly, the foreign visitor discovers that he must stand in
three separate lines at the bank to get a check cashed and that the hot water comes
on only once a day. Eventually, of course, the adjustment is made, and foreigners,
like newlyweds, can relax and enjoy life within the new situation.
Which two things are being compared? ________________ and ________________
What is similar about them? (List three things.)
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Connectives of Contrast
Connectives of contrast may indicate one of two things:
a. Two things are being compared, and they are different from each other.
b. Something in the text (a fact or idea) will be different from what we expect.
Exercise 5
Read the following sentences and circle the connectives. Then answer the
questions.
1. Americans are highly concerned with fitness. Nevertheless, the typical adult can’t
climb a flight of steps without getting short of breath.
Americans are not able to ______________________________________ although
they ________________________________________________
57
2. Most American college students cannot converse in a foreign language. In
contrast, it is a rare student in Europe who cannot speak at least one language
besides his own.
Who is contrasted in this sentence? _________________ and __________________
What is the difference between them?
___________________________________________________________________
3. Despite the fact that he has dyslexia, Tom Cruise has managed to succeed in life.
Tom Cruise has been able to ______________ even though he ________________
4. While humans grow until they reach maturity, a lobster will continue to grow for as
long as it lives.
Who is contrasted in this sentence? _________________ and __________________
Explain the difference.
___________________________________________________________________
5. Whereas many animals, such as the tiger, live relatively solitary lives, others, like
the gorilla, live in social groups.
Who is contrasted in this sentence? _________________ and __________________
Explain the difference.
___________________________________________________________________
6. A study shows that people consistently find red beverages to be sweeter and
more satisfying than drinks of other colors – even though they have the same
sugar content.
What is contrasted in this sentence? __________________ and ________________
Explain the difference: People believe that ___________________________ are
less ______________________ and less _________________________ than
________________________. This is surprising because __________________
___________________________________________________________________
7. Unlike Americans, who form orderly lines to wait their turn, people in African
countries almost never form lines to wait.
Who is contrasted in this sentence? _________________ and __________________
Explain the difference.
___________________________________________________________________
8. Generally speaking, women are more concerned with social relationships than
men and are less competitive than men.
Fill in the blanks: Men tend to be more ________________________ and less
___________________________________ than _______________________.
58
Exercise 6
Read the following paragraphs. Circle all the connectives, and then answer
the questions.
1. Ever since the Industrial Revolution, managers have been seeking ways to motivate
their workers to greater levels of efficiency. Two methods that they have developed
are job enrichment and job enlargement. Job enrichment means giving the worker
greater responsibility for planning, organizing, and controlling his work. That is, the
job expands vertically; the worker takes over the functions of those higher up in the
organization – supervisors, inspectors, even junior managers. Job enlargement, on
the other hand, means that the job expands horizontally. In a job-enlargement
situation, the individual worker has more different tasks to undertake herself, yet job
enlargement does not imply that the worker has any greater opportunity to plan work
or make decisions, and because of this job enrichment is often preferred. There is no
strong evidence to show that job enlargement increases worker motivation or that it
expands output and productivity. On the contrary, it seems that efficiency may be
reduced. This is because job enlargement lessens contact between workers. In
contrast, job enrichment brings workers together and allows them to interact in new
ways. As a result, motivation and performance improve significantly. Whereas jobenlargement situations often make workers feel isolated, deprived of responsibility,
and bored, job enrichment raises workers’ morale and decreases boredom, which
leads to higher productivity.
A. Fill in the following chart to show the differences between job enrichment and job
enlargement. Use these words: more less vertical horizontal
doesn’t increase increase decrease interesting boring
Give the line numbers from the text to show where you found the information.
Job Enrichment
Job Enlargement
Direction of
expansion
Contact between
workers
Workers’
responsibility,
decision-making
Work
Motivation
Productivity
59
Line Numbers
B. The writer contrasts two incentive plans and concludes that job ______________
is more successful than job ___________________.
2. Shame exists in all cultures. But in Western culture in general and the United States
in particular, shame is self-oriented, while in a country like Japan it is linked not to the
self but to others. In America, if a child fails an exam, the child might feel terrible and
be ashamed. A Japanese child, on the other hand, would be ashamed not because
he or she failed but because the failure resulted in shame for the child’s parents.
Shame shows up in a similar way in the workplace. In Japan, if a company doesn’t
make a profit as a result of worker laziness, the worker will be ashamed. It’s very
hard to think of any American worker feeling ashamed that General Motors didn’t
make a profit. The Japanese corporation works because it is part of a social system
in which the failure of the individual reflects upon the group. One feels shame for
letting down the group, not the self.
The paragraph contrasts ______________________________ and
____________________________.
In the former, shame is __________________________________, and in the latter,
shame is ________________________________________.
Give two examples of this.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Combined Comparison/Contrast
Some texts compare and contrast two things. That is, they show how two
things are both similar and different.
Exercise 7
Read the following paragraph. Circle the connectives, and then answer the
questions.
People riding a moped should remember that it is not really a motorcycle but only a
bicycle with a small motor attached. The moped may look like a lightweight
motorcycle, and it can weave through stalled traffic and crowded places like a
motorcycle. Like a motorcycle, it is cheaper and easier to maintain than the bulky,
gas-guzzling family car. However, the moped creates a real safety problem for
people who ride it in ordinary traffic. It has much less weight and power than a real
motorcycle. The driver depends on a very small, underpowered engine. The wind
caused by a passing truck or bus can make the lightweight moped impossible to
control.
60
What is being compared and contrasted? ______________ and ________________
List 3 ways in which they are similar. _____________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
What is the main difference between them?
___________________________________________________________________
Connectives of Cause and Effect
Connectives of cause and effect indicate a cause/effect relationship in a text.
(Connectives of cause come right before a cause, and connectives of effect come
right before an effect.)
Exercise 8
Read the following sentences and circle the connectives of cause and effect. Then
fill in the charts of cause and effect. Note that there may be more than one cause or
effect in a sentence.
1. The death penalty has been repealed since so many people have objected to it.

2. Cheating the government and other kinds of fraud are illegal. Thus, if you are
caught doing these things, you will go to jail or pay a large fine.

3. As Picasso wanted to give expression to his ideas, he started to paint.

4. We estimate that one-third of children who finish five years of school cannot read.
Consequently, they are at risk for dropping out and turning to a life of crime.

5. Owing to advances in genetic engineering, scientists are now able to clone cells
from animals and humans.

61
6. The computer at school was so busy that I seldom got a chance to use it.

7. The relentless pressures athletes experience may lead them to quitting organized
sports.

8. Due to the high cost of hotels and the inconvenience of traveling, many people
choose to celebrate holidays at home.

Unmarked Causes and Effects:
Sometimes there is a cause/effect relationship in a text even though there is no
connective. Many verbs may take the place of the cause/effect connective.
Example: The heavy storms triggered an avalanche on the mountain.
In this sentence, the heavy storms caused the avalanche.
Example: The child’s behavior in public embarrassed his parents.
In this sentence, the child’s behavior in public caused his parents to
be embarrassed.
Exercise 9
Read the following sentences. Circle the connectives of cause or effect. Then
underline the cause(s) once and the effect(s) twice. Remember that sometimes
there is no explicit marker.
1. Overeating may result in depression.
2. Overeating may be the result of depression.
3. The fruit had fermented, causing the butterflies that sipped its nectar to become
drunk.
4. Human behavior is the product of an interaction between our biological heritage
and the environment in which we live.
5. Among the reasons that products fail are poor design and poor performance.
6. The mass immigration resulted from the failing economy and the oppressive
leadership.
62
7. The large number of traffic accidents stems from a variety of problems,
chief among which are drivers’ recklessness and the condition of the
roads.
8. The more you smoke, the more you increase your risk of having a heart attack.
9. Research has shown that talking on cell phones while driving leads to accidents,
for when people talk, they get distracted.
Exercise 10
Read the following paragraph and circle the connectives of cause and effect.
Then answer the questions.
Most of the destruction in the great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 was the result
of fires that the earthquake triggered, and not the actual earthquake tremor. When
buildings collapsed or were damaged in the quake, stoves and furnaces were
overturned, resulting in the setting of numerous fires around the city. Fallen electrical
wires started still other fires. At the same time the earthquake ruptured the mains
that were supposed to supply water for firefighting. Rubble in the streets blocked the
paths of fire crews trying to reach burning areas. Thus, San Francisco’s firefighters
watched helplessly as the fires caused by the earthquake grew and grew until they
leveled the city.
Questions:
a.
What was the direct cause of most of the destruction during the great earthquake
in San Francisco? ___________________________________
b. What events did the earthquake cause which in turn led to fires?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c. What effects of the earthquake interfered with the firefighting?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
63
Exercise 11
The following paragraph describes a chain of causes and effects. Read the
paragraph and circle the connectives. Then fill in the charts of cause and effect.
In the Bavarian, French, and Italian Alps, once-beautiful forests are slowly being
destroyed by the effects of air pollution. Trees dying from pollution lose their leaves
or needles, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor. During this process, grass
grows well in the increased light and pushes out the native plants and moss which
help to hold rainwater. The soil thus becomes less absorbent and becomes hard,
causing rain and snow to slide over the ground instead of sinking into it. This in turn
results in erosion of the soil. After a heavy rain, the eroded land finally falls away in
giant pieces, leading to rockslides and avalanches that destroy entire villages and
cause life-threatening floods.

1.

2.
Increased light
on the forest
floor
3.
The soil becomes
less absorbent and
hard
4.
Dying trees lose their
leaves or needles




Eroded land
falls away in
giant pieces.



64

The soil
becomes less
absorbent and
hard
Connectives of Illustration
Connectives of illustration point to examples, explanations, and illustrations of
general ideas in texts.
Exercise 12
Read the following sentences, and circle the connectives. Underline the
words being explained once, and the examples and explanations twice.
1. There are various ways you can save money, namely, bringing your lunch to
work and automatically putting aside a small portion of your check each week.
2. Companies often create their own advertising characters, including the
Bamba baby and the Energizer Rabbit.
3. An important but little-known field of psychology is that of psycholinguistics,
the study of the psychology of language.
4. The scientist looked for a hypothesis – it could be called a sort of educated
guess – to explain the earthquake.
5. Many prehistoric peoples of Mexico, such as the Toltecs, built immense
pyramids to support their temples.
6. The airplane flew at Mach 2; i.e., it traveled at twice the speed of sound.
7. The hypophysis, a small gland at the base of the brain, controls a large
number of body functions.
8. Such nontraditional instruments as the sitar, gamelan, and oud are generally
not included in classical orchestras.
65
Exercise 13
Read the paragraph and circle the connectives. Then answer the
questions that follow.
What does it take to achieve great success? Educational psychologist Benjamin
Bloom did a study of high achievers and found that drive and determination, not
great natural talent, led to their success. The study included America’s top
performers in six fields: concert pianists, Olympic swimmers, sculptors, tennis
players, mathematicians, and research neurologists. Development of Bloom’s
subjects began when parents exposed the child to such activities as music,
swimming, and science experiments “just for fun.” At first many of the children
were quite ordinary in their skills. One Olympic swimmer, for instance,
remembers repeatedly losing races as a ten-year-old. At some point, however,
the children began to get recognition for their abilities and pursued them more
actively. After more successes and encouragement, the youngsters began
“living” for their talent. Most spent many hours each day practicing their skills.
This continued for many years before they reached truly extraordinary heights of
achievement.
Questions:
1. Why does the author tell us about Bloom’s study? To prove the idea that
________________________________________________________________
2. From what fields did Bloom study top performers?
________________________________________________________________
3. Music, swimming, and science experiments are listed as examples of
__________________________________
4. What is illustrated by the example of one Olympic swimmer?
________________________________________________________________
66
Connectives that show more than one type of relationship
Some connectives belong to more than one category because in different contexts
they indicate different relationships.
Exercise 14
The connectives in the following examples have more than one meaning. After each
sentence, write the kind of relationship indicated by the underlined connective.
1. a. There are several reasons that studying English is important. First, it is the
language used in international communication. Second…. _______________
b. To make this cake, first gather all the ingredients. Then.…______________
c. If people start driving more carefully, then the number of traffic accidents will
decline. _________________
2. a. First I skim the pages of the TV guide to see what movies will be on. Next, I
circle the ones I want to record on the VCR. _________________
b. There are several dental warning signs: one is if a tooth is sensitive to hot or
cold. The next sign is bleeding gums. __________________
3. a. Since arriving in Israel five years ago, Guy has worked in a garage, a
supermarket, and a sports store. ___________________
b. Since Shani had prepared all her equipment in advance, she was able to sleep
an hour later on the day of the trip. _________________
4. a. As I walked into the house, the phone rang. _________________
b. Maria decided to study French in college as her sisters had done.
________________
c. The department decided to close the course as there was not enough
registration. ______________________
5. a. While the children were doing their homework, their mother was folding laundry.
___________________
b. While friendships outside the family provided people with a source of intimacy
and self-esteem, it hindered the formation of close emotional bonds within the
family. _____________________
6. a. Over the years, the cost of living has gone up. Thus, many families have come
to rely on two incomes. ____________________
67
b. Many animals are able to adapt to their environments. Thus, animals such as
the ermine and the arctic fox are white in the winter and grow darker coats for the
summer. _____________________
Easily Confused Words
Study the following sentences. Note the differences in meaning and function of the
underlined words.
1. a. Living in the mountains has several disadvantages. For one thing, heavy rains
can create mudslides on the roads. Furthermore, it can be difficult to get a good
station on the radio. Finally, it is generally a long drive to the nearest stores.
b. After hiking for six hours, we finally reached the waterfall.
2. a. People started to immigrate to other countries, for there was political and
economic instability in their native land.
b. At the end of the party, the children sang a song that they had composed for
their grandmother.
3. a. Such flowers as lilies, freesias, and tulips are grown from bulbs, not seeds.
b. The politicians believed that taxes should be raised to pay for the
government’s debts, and that a new tax should be imposed on chocolate.
However, such ideas were unacceptable to the majority of voters.
4. a. Darla had a learning disability that made it difficult for her to learn to read, yet
she worked hard and became a successful businesswoman.
b. We have been working in the English workbook for three months, but we
haven’t finished it yet.
Review of Connectives
Exercise 14
Circle the words that describe the relationships between the ideas in the following
sentences. Then complete each sentence with the appropriate connective.
1. Many towns require residents to recycle their newspapers. Some towns
_______________ require recycling of bottles, jars, and cans.
a. Relationship: cause/effect
b. Missing connective: similarly
addition
unlike
68
comparison
also
contrast
therefore
2. It is possible to be addicted to something other than drugs or alcohol.
________________, many people are addicted to gambling.
a. Relationship: addition
illustration
b. Missing connective: As
comparison
Moreover
After
time
For instance
3. Watching television helps me pass the time when I’m on the exercise bike.
____________, listening to music on my Walkman makes jogging go by faster.
a. Relationship: comparison
cause/effect
b. Missing connective: Therefore
contrast
Likewise
addition
Besides
However
4. Even very young children can do household chores _______________ running a
duster along the baseboards or folding napkins for dinner.
a. Relationship: time
contrast
comparison
b. Missing connective: such as
before
illustration
whereas
because of
5. John repeatedly dropped courses when it was too late to get a refund;
_____________, his father refused to continue paying for his college education.
a. Relationship: illustration
addition
b. Missing connective: besides
time
while
cause/effect
as a result
for instance
6. When Rhoda was our supervisor, she insisted that forms be filled out perfectly.
______________, now that Tom is in charge, he just glances at the forms and
throws them in the bin.
a. Relationship: comparison
contrast
b. Missing connective: Consequently
cause/effect
Whenever
time
Likewise However
7. A new blouse in a fashionable color can update an old outfit; _______________,
adding dramatic jewelry or an attractive scarf can make an old outfit seem new.
a. Relationship: addition
comparison
b. Missing connective: therefore
contrast
in contrast
cause/effect
moreover
similarly
8. ______________ our huge zucchini crop, I have invented some new recipes:
cream of zucchini soup, zucchini burgers and zucchini stuffed with zucchini.
a. Relationship: cause/effect
b. Missing connective: In spite
illustration
Whereas
time
contrast
As a result of
Instead
9. Drinking is dangerous in combination with pregnancy, driving, and drugs.
_____________, excessive drinking can lead to liver disease.
a. Relationship: comparison
time
contrast
b. Missing connective: Furthermore
However
69
addition
Conversely Whenever
10. _____________ people consider salary when choosing a career, so they must
take into account what type of work they enjoy.
a. Relationship: addition
b. Missing connective: Until
time
comparison
Just as
Such as
illustration
Apart from
Exercise 15
Read the sentences and circle the connectives. Then label each item with
the letter of its main pattern of organization.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
Time / Order
Addition
Comparison
Contrast
Cause and Effect
Illustration
_______
1. Norms are the standards of behavior accepted as appropriate in a society.
In American society, for instance, wearing shoes to places like school and
work is a norm.
_______
2. Because some parents think that being in cold outside air makes it harder
to catch cold, they train their children to tolerate below-freezing
temperatures.
_______
3. The Tragedy of Hamlet begins outside the Danish castle, where two
officers see the ghost of the murdered King, Hamlet’s father. The officers
soon decide to tell Hamlet about the ghost. Next we see the new king,
Hamlet, and others enter a room of state in the castle.
_______
4. Jungles are areas of land that are densely overgrown with tropical trees
and other vegetation. In South America, the Amazon is the largest jungle.
_______
5. Our natural environment includes several visible forms of water: fog,
clouds, rain, frost, sleet, and hail.
_______
6. Just as people put their best foot forward for romance, birds show off their
skills or looks during courtship.
_______
7. If farmers alternate crops which take nitrogen from the soil with those that
return nitrogen to the soil, then they can plant the same fields year after year.
_______
8. Newspaper want ads are one of several excellent sources for secondhand
goods. Others are garage sales, flea markets, and thrift shops.
_______
9. Abe Lincoln took an unusual path to the Presidency. He lost his first job
and then declared bankruptcy. He suffered a nervous breakdown and lost
seven political contests before finally being elected to the White House.
_______
10. There was a time, in the not so distant past, when sports was equated
with excellence, fitness, testing one’s limits, and even having fun. Nowadays,
however, sports is big business – sky-high payments, coupled with
advertising royalties, have made superstars into multimillionaires.
70
Exercise 16
Complete the sentences in any logical way.
1. John and Muriel decided to get married even though _______________________
2. John and Muriel decided to get married as soon as ________________________
3. John and Muriel decided to get married because __________________________
4. John and Muriel decided to get married despite ___________________________
5. Carrots are good for your health because ________________________________
6. Carrots are good for your health whereas ________________________________
7. Although carrots are good for your health, ________________________________
8. The government increased the budget for higher education in order to
_________________________________________________________________
9. The government increased the budget for higher education even though
_________________________________________________________________
10. The government increased the budget for higher education whereas
_________________________________________________________________
Exercise 17
Read the following text and answer the questions.
Are All Men the Same as Macaroni?
1. One of the great deceptions of modern American culture is the concept of
packaging. Years ago, for example, macaroni was sold from the bin. The
housewife told the grocer “A kilo of macaroni, please” and he scooped it into a
brown paper bag. Later on, some unknown genius discovered macaroni sold
better rolled up, half a kilo at a time, in pale blue paper with a fancy label on it.
Thus, the concept was progressively refined until nowadays macaroni is
packaged like rare jade. Today it comes in layers of multi-colored and multitextured papers and plastics with a gleaming gold foil outer wrapping. Not by
accident, gift-wrapped macaroni costs twice as much as the old kind that came
out of the bin. Furthermore, even more disappointing, since the wrappings are
not edible, once the paper is thrown away, all macaroni tastes the same.
2. Over the past twenty years or so, people have been packaged in a similar way.
In our consumer society, because people select goods based on the packaging,
women are often attracted to men who say the right things, drive the right car,
wear the right clothes and earn the right salary. Moreover, sometimes it takes a
71
woman years of marriage to unwrap a husband and discover what she may have
suspected all along --- that underneath all the glitter is nothing but a kilo or so of
mental macaroni. While returning pasta to the grocery store is easy, exchanging
husbands is expensive, time-consuming and takes a lot out of a girl.
3. If women would look past the pretense and pseudo-sophistication and see before
marriage exactly what kind of package they are buying, the result might be
surprising. Sometimes what looks like macaroni on the surface is really pure gold
underneath.
Questions:
1. List the words that show chronology. __________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Find words that indicate cause/effect relationships. Explain the causes and
effects.
Cause

Effect
3. Find words showing that the writer is going to add to his previous idea.
________________________________________________________________
4. Find words that show contrast.
________________________________________________________________
5. a. What comparison is drawn here?
________________________ are compared to _________________________.
b. How are the two things similar? ____________________________________
________________________________________________________________
c. How are they different? ___________________________________________
72
Chapter 6:
Paragraph Structure
__________________________
Topics, Main Ideas, and Supporting Details
Every paragraph has a topic and a main idea. The topic is the subject of the
paragraph, a word or phrase that explains what the paragraph is about. The
main idea is a sentence that explains what the writer is saying about the topic.
The main idea is explained or supported by supporting details.
Exercise 1
Each of the following groups includes one topic, one main idea (topic
sentence), and two supporting details. In the space provided, label each item
with one of the following: T (topic)
MI (main idea)
SD (supporting details).
Group 1:
_______ a. Students are being required to take more academic courses.
_______ b. America is making an effort to improve the quality of education.
_______ c. Teacher’s salaries have risen sharply in the last ten years.
_______ d. America’s commitment to education.
Group 2:
_______ a. In later adulthood, we begin to come to terms with our own
mortality.
_______ b. Stages of human development
_______ c. Adolescence is a time of identity crisis.
_______ d. According to psychologists, we pass through various
stages of human development in our lives.
73
Exercise 2
Read the paragraphs below, and try to find the topic, main idea, and supporting
details of each one.
To find the topic, ask yourself: Who or what is this paragraph about?
To find the main idea, ask yourself: Does most or all of the paragraph discuss/explain
this sentence?
Paragraph 1:
Many companies have found that flextime, or flexibility of working hours, has several
advantages. The most obvious advantage is less absenteeism. When employees
can choose working hours that meet their needs, they are less likely to take time off.
Another advantage is more efficient use of the physical plant. The additional hours
that a company is “open for business” could mean higher productivity and greater
profits. Finally, giving employees a choice of working hours permits them more
control over their work environment, leading to increased job satisfaction and less
turnover.
Topic (the general subject): _____________________________________________
Main Idea (the writer’s main point): _______________________________________
Supporting Details (the specific ideas that support the main idea):
1. _________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________
Paragraph 2:
Does watching television make people more prone to violence themselves? Clearly,
TV violence does affect people in negative ways. One study showed that people
who watch a great deal of television are especially fearful and suspicious of others.
They try to protect themselves from the outside world with extra locks on the doors,
guard dogs, and guns. That same study also showed that heavy TV watchers
become less upset about real-life violence than non-TV watchers. It seems that the
constant violence they see on TV makes them less sensitive to the real thing.
Another study, of a group of children, found that TV violence increases aggressive
behavior. Children who watched violent shows were more willing to hurt another
child in games where they are given a choice between helping and hurting. They
were also more likely to select toy weapons over other kinds of playthings.
Topic: ______________________________________________________________
Main Idea: ___________________________________________________________
Supporting Details:
1. _________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________
74
Where is the Main Idea Located?
A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one main idea. The main idea is
usually located at or near the beginning of the paragraph, but sometimes it appears
in other places in the paragraph. The following shows some different structures of
paragraphs.
A.
E. Implied Main Idea
Main Idea
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
B.
F. One MI for 2 paragraphs
Supporting Detail
Main Idea
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Main Idea
Supporting Detail
Main Idea
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
C.
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Main Idea
D.
Introduction / Supporting
Detail
Main Idea
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
Supporting Detail
75
Exercise 3
Read the following paragraphs and find the main idea and supporting details
(if the main idea is implied, write a sentence that is the main idea). Then write
the letter of the paragraph structure from the previous page that reflects the
pattern of the paragraph. (For example, if the main idea is the first sentence,
write “A” by “pattern of paragraph structure.)
1. For thousands of years, dolphins were thought to be simply playful, friendly
creatures with limited mental abilities. However, recently it was discovered that a
dolphin’s brain is actually larger than a man’s and may be capable of highly
complicated thought processes. Another discovery was that, although the
dolphin has no vocal cords, it does have a vocabulary of at least thirty-two
distinct sounds, including clicks, whistles, squeals, and groans. What’s more,
each dolphin has its own distinctive “voice” when making these sounds.
Obviously, dolphins are more advanced creatures than they were once thought
to be.
Main Idea: _____________________________________________________
Number of supporting details: ______________
Pattern of paragraph structure (see page 75): ______________
2. Studies have shown that color is an important part of how people experience
food. In one study, people fed a beautiful red tomato sauce did not notice that it
had no flavor until they were nearly finished eating. In another experiment,
people were offered foods that were strangely colored: gray pork chops, lavender
mashed potatoes, dark-blue peas, and dessert topped with gray whipped cream.
Not one subject would taste the strange-looking food, even though it smelled and
tasted normal.
Main Idea: _____________________________________________________
Number of supporting details: ______________
Pattern of paragraph structure (see page 75): ______________
3. When you were younger, your mother cautioned you not to act like an animal.
What Mother obviously didn’t realize is that the rest of the world holds animals in
such high regard that they use animal’s names for their organizations and
products. For instance, many professional sports teams, such as the Tigers and
76
the Rams, have chosen animal names to suggest power. Also, cars are given
names to make consumers associate them with speed and grace. Examples are
the Jaguar, the Cougar, and the Bobcat. Even our political parties have adopted
animals to represent them.
Main Idea: _____________________________________________________
Number of supporting details: ______________
Pattern of paragraph structure (see page 75): ______________
4. Birds that roost in communities keep warmer and save more energy than those
who roost separately. Another advantage to staying in flocks is that many birds
are more likely to find food and detect danger than a solitary bird – several pairs
of eyes are better than one. In addition, birds that eat on the ground with their
flock can more easily escape attack because at least one member of the flock
will alert the others. Then, when all the birds fly upward to escape together, they
cause confusion, turning a predator’s interest away from any one individual.
Several small birds may even act together to “mob” a larger intruder and drive it
away.
Main Idea: _____________________________________________________
Number of supporting details: ______________
Pattern of paragraph structure (see page 75): ______________
5.
We are on our way to becoming a cashless, checkless society, a trend that
began with the credit card. Now some banks are offering “debit cards” instead
of credit cards. The costs of purchases made with these cards are deducted
from the holder’s bank account instead of being added to a monthly bill. And
checking accounts, which are mainly used for paying bills, are going electronic.
Now some people can make computer transactions over their pushbutton
phones to pay bills by transferring money from their account to the account of
whomever they owe. Soon we may be able to conduct most of our business
without signing a check or actually seeing the money we earn and spend.
Main Idea: _____________________________________________________
Number of supporting details: ______________
Pattern of paragraph structure (see page 75): ______________
77
Exercise 4
Read the following paragraphs and answer the questions that follow. Notice that in
order to answer the questions, you must locate the main ideas and supporting
details.
1. Americans express a remarkably high agreement that pornography should be
restricted. An overwhelmingly 91 percent of all Americans think that the law
should limit or forbid its distribution – 48 percent favor laws that forbid the
distribution of pornography to persons under eighteen, and another 43 percent
favor laws that would keep pornography from people no matter what their age.
Females feel even more strongly about this matter than do males, with a full 50
percent wanting to entirely forbid the distribution of pornography.
-What major point is supported by the statistics in this paragraph?
a. Many Americans think that the distribution of pornography to teenagers should
be forbidden.
b. Many women believe that the distribution of pornography should be forbidden
completely.
c. Many Americans support the view that pornography should be restricted.
d. Many Americans agree that pornography should be kept from people
regardless of their age.
2. The arrival of police can turn a mild situation into a dangerous one. For example,
a Poor People’s March in Detroit turned into a riot when police inside a meeting
hall tried to force people out and police outside the hall tried to push them in.
Many of the ghetto riots of the 1960s were sparked by police action. Police
attempts to make an arrest for a traffic violation may lead to a high-speed chase,
causing injury and death that might not have occurred otherwise. Increased
enforcement of the narcotics laws is in part responsible for shifting the drug traffic
from local, amateur groups to highly sophisticated and skilled criminal
organizations.
-The examples in this paragraph are brought to illustrate:
a. various dangerous events in which the police have to participate
b. how the police can make situations more dangerous
c. how the police make arrests for traffic and drug violations
d. how the police handle dangerous situations skillfully
3. Some wedding customs of other times and cultures were notably dramatic. For
instance, in ancient Rome, grooms carried their brides over the threshold.
Before they did, however, they smeared the doorposts with fat and wrapped
them in wool to banish evil spirits. In old Mexico, bridal couples shaved their
78
heads to show that they had set aside childish ideas and welcomed the
responsibilities of marriage. And, in 18th-century England, the groom’s mother
broke a loaf of bread over the bride’s head as the bride entered her new home.
This, they believed, ensured future happiness for the married couple.
-List three examples that show that the wedding customs of the past were quite
dramatic:
a. ____________________________________________________________
b. ____________________________________________________________
c. ____________________________________________________________
4. Five years after his earthquake experience, one man claims that even the
rocking of a boat is fearful for him. A young woman who survived an earthquake
several years ago says that every loud noise she hears now makes her dive for
cover. And another person who experienced an earthquake tells how he always
plans an escape route every time he enters a building. Apparently, experiencing
an earthquake can affect a person’s sense of security for a long time.
-What is the main idea of this paragraph?
a. Experiencing an earthquake can affect one’s sense of security for a long time.
b. Frightening experiences of all types can influence people long after the events
have occurred.
c. Loud noises make one person who experienced an earthquake dive for cover.
d. There are various types of frightening experiences, including earthquakes.
5.
The leading causes of death in 1900 were pneumonia, influenza, and
tuberculosis. Today, these acute diseases rarely cause death; instead, most
people die of chronic diseases such as heart and blood-vessel disorders or
cancer. Why the change? Antibiotics and similar drugs that can cure infectious
diseases did not exist in 1900. Also, standards of living and public health have
improved: more people today eat a healthier diet, drink comparatively clean
water and milk, and live in environments free of insects, rats, and other carriers
of disease. People in generally good health can often fight off infections.
-Why does the author mention antibiotics and today’s standards of living and
public health? _________________________________________________
-What is the function of the first two sentences of the paragraph? (ONE WORD)
_________________________
79
Exercise 5
Read the paragraph below, and circle the connectives. Then fill in the diagram to
show the structure of the paragraph.
1.
Advertisers must consider the various advantages and disadvantages of the
mediums available to them. 2. A brief look at television points up some of the
issues to be considered. 3. Television has several advantages. 4. The most
important of television’s advantages is the ability to reach a mass audience. 5. In
addition, this is done with the powerful combination of sight and sound – more
effective than if consumers were to only see the ad or only hear it. 6. Also,
advertisers can aim their messages at the most likely customers. 7. For example,
they can purchase network time to advertise widely available products or local
time for local products and services. 8. Or they can buy time on specific types of
programs. 9. Thus a kitchen appliance company might advertise on cooking
shows. 10. Television advertising also has some disadvantages. 11.One is that the
large number of ads takes away from each ad’s impact. 12. Also, television ads
are extremely expensive. 13. Creating a TV commercial costs at least $125,000
and showing it on popular prime-time shows costs at least double that amount.
14.
Finally, the wide use of VCRs means that many viewers can watch
prerecorded shows and bypass the commercials.
Main Idea: There are advantages and disadvantages in using TV for advertising.
Advantages of television as an
Disadvantages of television as an
advertising medium
advertising medium
1.
80
Exercise 6
Implied Main Ideas: Read the following paragraphs, and answer the following
questions. Notice that the main ideas in these paragraphs are implied; that is, they
are not written explicitly.
1. Although we can never determine exactly how extensive drug abuse is in the
United States, much is known about its effects. Driving under the influence of
marijuana is beginning to take its toll in highway deaths and injuries, and perhaps
15 percent of auto accidents are now associated with marijuana. Alcohol, one of
our most common drugs, is far more dangerous than its broad social
acceptability would imply. Many people recognize alcohol’s association with
about half of all deaths from automobile accidents. Few know, however, that
compared with non-drinkers, the death rate is twice as high for those who drink
five or more drinks at least four times a week or that cirrhosis of the liver (a direct
cause of alcoholism) is the sixth most common cause of death in the United
States. People are also only beginning to realize that alcohol is the third major
cause of birth defects in the United States.
-What is the main idea of this paragraph?
a. It is estimated that 15 percent of U.S. auto accidents involve marijuana.
b. Cirrhosis of the liver is a more common cause of death than people
realize.
c. Drug abuse is a significant problem in the U.S. today.
d. Drug abuse is a major problem all over the world today.
2. A fund raiser comes to your door and asks for a five-hundred-dollar contribution.
You laughingly refuse, telling her that the amount is way out of your league. She
then asks for a ten-dollar contribution. If you are like most people, you’ll probably be
a lot more agreeable than if she hadn’t asked for the huge contribution first.
Similarly, college students were stopped on the street and asked to agree to a
substantial favor – acting as unpaid counselors for juvenile delinquents two hours a
week for two years. Not surprisingly, no one agreed to such an outrageous request.
But when they were later asked the considerably smaller favor of taking a group of
delinquents on a two-hour trip to the zoo, half the people complied. In comparison,
only 17 percent of a control group of subjects who had not first received the larger
request agreed.
81
-What is the main idea of this paragraph?
a. 17 percent of a control group agreed to a smaller request for help.
b. Most people are agreeable to giving charity if they are not first asked for a
large donation.
c. People don’t like to be asked for big favors from strangers because it is
outrageous.
d. People are more likely to agree to a small request if they are first asked for
a larger favor.
3. In ancient times, irrational behavior was considered the result of demons and
evil spirits taking possession of a person. Later, the Greeks looked upon
irrational behavior as a physical problem – caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids called “humors” or by displacement of an organ. In the highly
superstitious Middle Ages, the theory of possession by demons was revived.
It reached a high point in the witch hunts of eighteenth-century Europe and
America. Only in the last one hundred years did true medical explanations of
mental illness gain wide acceptance.
-What is the main idea of this paragraph?
______________________________________________________________
4. Drivers in Caracas, Venezuela must follow an odd/even license-number
system for driving their cars on any given day. Cars with license plates
ending in even numbers can drive downtown only on even-numbered days;
those with odd numbers can drive only on odd-numbered days. Similarly, in
Los Angeles this past summer every business with one hundred or more
employees was forced to set up a ride-sharing program. Such programs
involve offering employees incentives for using mass transportation, joining a
car pool, or otherwise avoiding driving a car in the city. Even more extreme is
Singapore’s method of limiting downtown traffic – most private vehicles are
entirely banned from large areas of the central city.
-What is the main idea of this paragraph?
________________________________________________________________
82
Chapter 7:
Passive Voice
What is Passive Voice?
Verbs are said to be either active (The committee approved the new policy) or
passive (The new policy was approved by the committee) in voice.
In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is
a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along.
In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er nor a be-er, but is
acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was
approved).
Why are some sentences written in the Passive Voice?
1. We don't know who did the action in the sentence.
My wallet was stolen last night. (We don’t know who stole the wallet.)
2. When the agent ("doer") is unimportant:
The new students’ centre was completed last week. (We don't need to know
who built the centre in order to understand the meaning of the sentence.)
3. When the agent ("doer") of the action is obvious from the context:
I was born in March of '55. (Everyone knows that my mother bore me)
4. To emphasize (put importance on) the recipient (receiver) of the action:
a. Only Jane was injured in the accident; everyone else was unhurt.(we want
Jane to be the subject of the sentence and at the beginning to emphasize her
importance)
b. Erina was chosen as best student. (The teacher who chose Erina is not
what we want to emphasize.)
5. To make general statements, announcements, and explanations:
a. Something should be done about the traffic jams in this town.
b. Customers are asked not to smoke.
c. The computer is turned on, then the disk is inserted into the drive.
83
Formation of the Passive Voice
The Passive is formed like this: Passive Subject + To Be + V3
If the agent ("doer") is important, use "by":
Example (Active Voice): Tim Wilson wrote "The Flight to Brunnswick" in 1987.
Changes to: "The Flight to Brunnswick" was written in 1987 by Tim Wilson.
Only verbs that take an object can be used in the passive.
The following chart includes sentences changed from the active to the passive in the
main tenses.
Active
Passive
Time Reference
David cleans the house.
The house is cleaned by David.
Present Simple
David is cleaning the house.
The house is being cleaned by
David.
Present Continuous
David cleaned the house.
The house was cleaned by David. Past Simple
David was cleaning the house
when I arrived.
The house was being cleaned
when I arrived.
The house has been cleaned by
David has cleaned the house
David every week since he got
every week since he got married.
married.
Past Continuous
Present Perfect
David is going to clean the house The house is going to be cleaned Future Intention with
by David tomorrow.
tomorrow.
Going to
David will clean the house
tomorrow.
The house will be cleaned by
David tomorrow.
Future Simple
**Note that the tense (time reference) is now identified by the form of the addition of
the "to be" verb.
84
Identifying the Passive Voice
Exercise 1: Read the following article. Circle all verbs in the Passive Voice.
Travel Chaos This Weekend
A £100m engineering programme means that sections of three of the busiest
railway lines will be closed over the August bank holiday weekend.
All trains between Reading and London have been cancelled until 0500 BST
on Tuesday. Extra trains have been scheduled from Waterloo. Services between
London and Stansted airport will be disrupted on Sunday, while trains from London to
Birmingham New Street will be diverted around Coventry and Birmingham
International on Saturday and Sunday.
The head of the railway company said, ‘The choice has to be made when to
do the work, and I recognise that some people are going to be inconvenienced this
weekend.’ ‘The bank holidays are three-day weekends, and, when major works are
being done, it gives us the opportunity to do these efficiently and at a reduced cost.’
A representative of the Rail Passengers Council said that passengers had not
been informed of the plans. He told our reporter that increased disruption could be
accepted if people thought that it was being planned efficiently.
Exercise 2: Read these sentences. Are they in the Active or Passive Voice?
Active
1.
The instructions have been changed.
2.
People must not leave bicycles in the driveway.
3.
She will have to be taught how to swim.
4.
This car was manufactured in Japan by Toyota.
5.
They were cooking dinner when I arrived.
6.
Why aren't the exercises being finished on time?
7.
Last year 2,000 new units had been produced by the time we
introduced the new design.
8.
They are going to perform Beethoven's Fifth Symphony next
weekend.
9.
Casual clothes must not be worn.
85
Passive
Active
10.
$400,000 in profit has been reported this year.
11.
The test will be given at five o'clock this afternoon.
12.
Students are required to wear uniforms at all times.
13.
They have finished the new product design.
14.
This rumor must have been started by our competitors.
15.
The students will finish the course by July.
16.
They are repairing the streets this month.
17.
All work will have been completed by five o'clock this evening.
18.
We were told to wait here.
19.
You should take care when working on electrical equipment.
20.
They make these tools of plastic.
86
Passive
Chapter 8:
Dictionary Skills
When you look up a word in the dictionary, you need to think about some important
things.
1. Part of Speech )‫(חלק דיבר‬
Words can have different meanings when they appear as different parts of speech.
Look at the following sentences:
1. a. It is very hot in the desert.
b. She deserted her children when they were very young.
2. a. What level are you studying in English?
b. The tractor will level the land.
2. Context )‫(הקשר‬
Words can have different meanings even when they appear as the same parts of
speech:
1. You must put a period at the end of a sentence.
2. The Baroque period was a very interesting time.
3. The basic form of the word )‫(צורה בסיסית של המילה‬
You must take off any endings )‫ (סיומות‬that are on the word. Here are some reminders:
a) Take off ED / ING / S / ER / EST.
Note the difference between words like "hoping" (You must look for "hope" in
the dictionary) and "hopping" (You must look for "hop" in the dictionary)
Note that words that end in "sh", "ch" and "X" have ES added on.
b) These endings IES / IER / IEST / IED must all change to Y when you look for
them in the dictionary.
4. Phrasal Verbs )‫(פעלי ביטוי‬
Some verbs have different meanings because of the words coming after them.
e.g. Look for – ‫לחפש‬
Look forward to – ‫לצפות‬
Look after – ‫לטפל‬
In your electronic dictionary you should enter all the words with a space in between.
87
Exercise 1: Look at the word in bold. What is its Part of Speech? What is its
meaning, in the context of the sentence?
Part of Speech
Meaning
1. a) I would like to draw your attention to the following
question.
b) Mr. Cohen is always a great draw in our meetings.
2. a) We need to shape our ideas before we start
writing the book.
b) The shape of this table is very unusual.
3. a) He had an strong drive to smoke cigarettes.
b) Her great suffering drives her to alcoholism.
4. a) The teacher will post the grades tomorrow.
b) The dog was tied to a post beside the store.
5. a) The man who was injured in the accident is in
grave condition.
b) When people visit a grave, they often leave
flowers.
Exercise 2: Look at the word in bold. What is its Basic Form? What is its meaning,
in the context of the sentence? (Remember to think about Parts of Speech also!)
Basic Form
1. He is potting his plants in beautiful vases.
2. That joke is sillier than the other one.
3. They remedied the problem.
4. She looked at the swatches of fabric.
5. Fleming was the discoverer of penicillin.
6. We are creating new jobs.
7. He had many excuses for being late.
88
Meaning
Vocabulary Charts
Reading Comprehension:
definition
‫הגדרה‬
introduction
‫מבוא‬/‫הקדמה‬
idea
‫רעיון‬
idiom
‫ניב‬
topic
‫נושא‬
summary
‫תמצית‬/‫סיכום‬
explain
‫להסביר‬
title
‫כותרת‬/‫שם‬
refer
‫מתייחס‬
writer, author
‫כותב‬/‫סופר‬
cause, reason
‫ גורם‬,‫סיבה‬
passage, text
‫קטע קריאה‬
result, effect
‫תוצאה‬
article
‫מאמר‬
former
‫הקודם‬
global reading
‫קריאה גלובלי‬
latter
‫השני‬
skim
‫לקרוא ברפרוף‬
quote
‫ציטוט‬
scan
‫לקרוא במבט‬
factor
‫גורם‬
intensive reading
‫קריאה אינטנסיבית‬
specific
‫מסוים‬/‫ספציפי‬
expressions
‫ביטויים‬
infer
‫להבין‬/‫להסיק‬
terms
‫מונחים‬
imply
‫מתכוון‬/‫מרמז‬
abstract
‫תקציר‬/‫תמצית‬
according to
‫לפי‬
describe
‫לתאר‬
paragraph
‫פסקה‬
event, happening
‫אירוע‬
mean
‫מתכוון‬
phrase
‫חלק של משפט‬/‫קטע‬
sentence
‫משפט‬
critical
‫ביקורתי‬
example
‫דוגמא‬
review
‫בקורת‬/‫סקירה‬
comparison
‫השוואה‬
argument
‫נימוק‬/‫טעון‬
contrast
‫ניגוד‬
opinion
‫דעה‬
purpose, aim, goal
‫מטרה‬
belief
‫אמונה‬
conclusion
‫מסקנה‬,‫סיכום‬/‫סיום‬
connectors
‫מילות קשר‬
89
Research:
population
‫אוכלוסייה‬
interpret
‫לפרש‬
control group
‫קבוצת ביקור‬
measure
‫למדוד‬
variable (dependent)
variable
(independent)
constant
‫משתנה תלוי‬
show
‫ מוכיח‬,‫מראה‬
‫משתנה בלתי תלוי‬
hypothesis
‫היפותזה‬/‫השערה‬
‫קבוע‬
theory
‫תיאוריה‬
sample
‫מדגם‬
prove
‫להוכיח‬
method
‫שיטה‬
proof
‫הוכחה‬
results
‫תוצאות‬
conclude
‫להסיק‬
findings
‫ממצאים‬
cause
‫סיבה‬/‫גורם‬
evidence
‫עדויות‬
correlation
‫התאמה‬
experiment
‫ניסוי‬
affect
‫להשפיע‬
field
‫שטח‬
effect
‫השפעה‬
laboratory
average
‫ממוצע‬
subject
‫מעבדה‬
‫נבדק‬
percent
‫אחוז‬
questionnaire
‫שאלון‬
study
‫מחקר‬
blind
‫עיוור‬
objective
‫אובייקטיבי‬
indicate
‫ להראות‬,‫להצביע על‬
subjective
‫סובייקטיבי‬
placebo
‫דמה‬
assume
‫להניח‬
data
‫נתונים‬/‫נתון‬
expect
‫לצפות‬
examine
‫לבחון‬
statistic
‫נתון‬
analysis (n)
‫ אנליזה‬,‫עיבוד‬
random
‫אקראי‬
observe
‫ להתבונן‬,‫לצפות‬
figures
‫תמונות‬/‫מספרים‬
record (v)
‫ להקליט‬,‫לרשום‬
tables, charts
‫טבלאות‬
characteristics
‫מאפיינים‬
science
‫מדע‬
90
Useful Verbs I
‫לקבוע‬
to interpret
‫לפרש‬
to reduce
‫להפחית‬
to increase
‫להגדיל‬
to appear
‫להופיע‬
to persist
‫להתמיד‬
to improve
‫לשפר‬
to prove
‫להוכיח‬
to inform
‫ליידע‬
to perform
to determine
‫לבצע‬
to estimate
‫להעריך‬
to deny
‫להכחיש‬
to persuade
‫לשכנע‬
to admire
‫להעריץ‬
to succeed
‫להצליח‬
to challenge
‫לאתגר‬
to consider
‫לשקול‬
to observe
‫לצפות‬
to establish
‫ לבסס‬,‫לייסד‬
to realize
‫להבין‬
to acquire
‫לרכוש‬
to display
‫להראות‬
to attempt
‫לנסות‬
to be exposed to
‫להיחשף‬
to develop
‫לפתח‬
to recognize
‫להכיר‬
to respond
‫ לענות‬,‫להגיב‬
to achieve
‫להשיג‬
‫לסמוך על‬
to remain
‫לטעון‬
to emerge
Useful Verbs II
to rely on
to claim
to decrease
to criticize
‫לרדת בכמות‬
to be involved
‫להישאר‬
,‫ לצוץ‬,‫לצוף‬
‫להופיע‬
‫להיות מעורב ב‬
‫להעביר ביקורת‬
to correspond
‫להתאים ל‬
to be committed
‫להיות מחויב‬
‫להתייחס ל‬
to perceive
‫ לטפוס‬,‫להבין‬
to allow
‫להרשות‬
to support
‫לתמוך‬
to defeat
‫להביס‬
to express
‫להביע‬
to be concerned
to regard
‫להיות מודאג‬
‫להשפיע על‬
to argue
‫ לטעון‬,‫להתווכח‬
to prevent
‫למנוע‬
to design
‫לעצב‬
to suggest
‫להציע‬
to contain
‫להכיל‬
‫לחקור‬
‫ להיות‬,‫לסמוך על‬
‫תלוי ב‬
‫להצביע על‬
to process
‫לעבד‬
to present
‫להציג‬
to influence
to investigate
to depend on
to indicate
91
to benefit from
‫להפיק תועלת מ‬