Moving Beyond Schein’s Typology: Individual Career
Anchors in the Context of Nigeria
Afam Ituma and Ruth Simpson
Brunel Business School, Brunel University
ABSTRACT
Purpose –Drawing on institutional theory, this study sets out to explore the career anchors
that exist among information technology (IT) workers in Nigeria and also to establish the
strongest anchors in this context.
Design/methodology/approach–This research adopted a two-pronged methodological
approach, which involved the use of 30 semi structured interviews and 336 questionnaire
survey.
Findings – Results suggest the continued significance of traditional orientations to careers in
Nigeria as well as orientations associated with new career theory.
Research limitations/implications –The extent to which the findings of this research can be
generalized is constrained by the selected context of the research.
Practical implications-HR managers in Nigeria should be cautious of adopting career
management models developed in the West. They should provide a reward system, which
minimises financial uncertainty and risk.
Originality/value –This paper provides valuable insights on the career anchors of IT workers
in a relatively neglected region in the literature. It also extends Schein’s original career anchor
theory.
Article Type: Research paper
KEY WORDS: Careers, Career Anchor, Nigeria, IT workers, Developing countries
The authors are grateful to John Blenkinsopp, Newcastle University Business School, UK for his
valuable comments and suggestions on an earlier draft.
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INTRODUCTION
Over the past few years, there has been a growing research interest in the influence of
national culture and societal institutions on careers (recent examples include Baruch,
2004; Thomas and Inkson, 2006). There is a broad consensus among these scholars
that careers are shaped and constrained by the socio-cultural and economic factors
embedded in different national contexts. Despite recognition of the importance of
such contextual factors for shaping individual careers, the career literature has largely
neglected to account for career dynamics in diverse national contexts (Thomas and
Inkson, 2006). Our knowledge of individual careers has accordingly been largely
informed by research and models developed in Western developed countries
(Budhwar and Baruch, 2003) and so may not accurately reflect the careers of
individuals in other national contexts.
In this respect, the career anchors of workers in less developed countries is a
neglected and little understood area of inquiry (Counsell, 2002; Pringle and Mallon,
2003). Drawing on institutional theory and through a study of a particular group of
skilled workers in Nigeria–specifically those involved in information technology–we
aim to fill this research gap. Moreover, in contrast to the majority of empirical work
which has focused on the “external” career i.e. the externally visible roles or offices
held by an individual, we explore the nature of the “internal” career which concerns
internal values, interests and motives held dearly by an individual (Gattiker and
Larwood, 1988). The internal career is typically conceptualized in terms of career
orientations or career anchors (Sparrow and Hiltrop, 1996). Drawing on Schein’s
(1978) work, these refer to the constellation of self-perceived attitudes, values, needs
and talents that develop over time, and which shape and guide career choices and
directions. An understanding of the career anchors of individuals is important because
congruence between individual anchors and work environment is thought to lead to
positive career outcome such as job effectiveness, job satisfaction and high retention
while incongruence is likely to lead to job dissatisfaction and high turnover (Schein,
1978).
The overall objective of this paper is thus to contribute the Nigerian perspective and
context to the wider discourse on the socially constructed nature of careers. In doing
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so the paper will explore the different dimensions of career anchors that exist among a
specific group of workers in Nigeria as well as the relative importance attached to
each anchor.
CAREER PERSPECTIVES
A common view in the growing literature on careers is the notion that careers have an
external as well as an internal dimension. The external career concerns the series of
positions or offices which an individual holds (Sparrow and Hiltrop, 1996; Nicholson,
2000) while the internal career, as noted above, concerns the internal values, interests
and motives held by an individual (Sparrow and Hiltrop, 1996). Most research and
theory about careers have evolved around these two dominant views.
However, despite consensus among scholars that careers have these two dimensions,
Arthur and Rousseau (1996) found that more than 75% of the career-related articles
published in major journals between 1990 and 1994 focused on the external aspects of
career. By contrast, research on the internal dimension has been relatively neglected.
However, the internal career is increasingly being recognised as significant as
individuals are expected to take greater responsibility for both the direction and
interpretation of their unfolding careers (Hall, 2002). This development is associated
with new career theory (e.g., Hall and Mirvis, 1996) which suggests a rise in
“boundaryless” or “protean” careers. These conceptualise a “new deal” whereby the
traditional career (where salary, status and a secure career ladder within a single
organization are exchanged for loyalty and commitment) may be giving way to the
need for individuals to take responsibility for their own career management in a more
uncertain environment, where career paths go beyond the boundaries of a single
organization (Hall, 1996) and where there is an emphasis on portable skills and on
meaningful work (Hall and Mirvis, 1996).
A foundational model for understanding individuals’ internal careers is Schein’s
career anchor theory. Schein (1987) defines a career anchor as “that one element in
our self-concept that we will not give up, even when forced to make a difficult
decision” (p.158). Schein’s (1978) seminal work on career anchors suggests that there
are eight major types of career anchors that drive individuals’ career decisions. These
3
anchors are (1) security and stability (the desire for security of employment and
benefit); (2) autonomy and independence (the desire for freedom to pursue career
interests that is free of organizational constraints); (3) technical/functional
competence (the desire for enhanced technical competence and credibility);(4)
managerial
competence
(the
desire
for
managerial
responsibilities);(5)
entrepreneurial creativity (the desire to create and develop new products and
services); (6) service and dedication to a cause (the desire to engage in activities that
improves the world in some ways); (7) pure challenge (the desire to overcome major
obstacles and solve almost unsolvable problems) and (8) life style (the desire to
integrate personal and career needs).
Schein’s career anchor theory is founded on the premise that congruence between
individuals career orientation and work environment will result in job satisfaction and
increased commitment while incongruence will result in job dissatisfaction and
turnover (Feldman and Bolino, 1996). The main assumption underpinning Schein’s
career anchor theory is that an individual can only have one career anchor and this
anchor is unlikely to change once it is developed. This suggests that individuals will
seek job opportunities that strengthen this anchor rather than undermine it.
Although Schein’s career anchor theory has received empirical support (e.g., Igbaria
et al, 1991; Petroni, 2000), there have been several critiques. Feldman and Bolino
(1996), for example, question the notion that individuals can only have one stable
career anchor arguing that it is possible for individuals to have multiple important
career anchors, as individuals are likely to have multiple important career and life
goals.
Despite this criticism, as Igbaria et al. (1991) note, Schein’s career anchor model is a
helpful foundation from which to explore individual career choices and the reaction of
employees to different career development opportunities. Thus, it has been applied to
different occupational groups to understand the needs individuals aspire to fulfil.
Within the area of IT, Ginzberg and Baroudi (1992) identified challenge and service
as the most dominant anchor in US, Igbaria and McCloskey (1996) identified job
security and service to be the dominant anchors in Taiwan, Igbaria, et al. (1995)
identified service and job security as the most dominant anchor in South Africa while
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Danziger and Valency (2006) identified lifestyle as the most dominant anchor in
Israel.
Although these studies provide valuable insight on the career anchors held by IT
workers, they yield conflicting empirical result on the importance attached to each
anchor in different national contexts. Further, one inherent limitation of these studies
is that they apply Schein’s career anchor inventory to their respective samples without
modification for differences in national context. It is unlikely that Schein’s US based
framework, reflective of its unique social structures and institutions, will fully capture
the career orientations of individuals in different national contexts because of the
likely impact of societal institutions and national culture.
Put together, while the work of Schein provides a sound starting point for developing
an understanding of the nature of individuals’ internal careers, it may not capture the
unique career experiences of individuals in different national contexts. As discussed
earlier in this paper, the dominance of the Anglo-American perspective in the career
literature may well have marginalised the significance of non Western based factors in
our understanding of career development. As a result, we know relatively little about
the dimensions of and importance attached to career anchors that exist among
individuals in developing countries such as Nigeria. In order to fill this research gap,
this paper addresses the following research questions:

What are the different dimensions of career orientations that exist among
skilled (specifically IT) workers in Nigeria?

In this context, what is the relative importance attached to each career anchor?
INSTITUTIONAL INFLUENCE ON CAREERS - THE NIGERIAN
CONTEXT
In addressing the above questions, this paper draws on institutional theory which,
seeks to describe how human behavior is shaped and regulated by social structures.
This theory suggests that individual behaviours reflect and mimic societal
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conventions, values, beliefs and norms. Scott (2004) notes that there are three
“pillars” of institutional processes: the regulative pillar (rules and laws that exist to
ensure stability and order in societies), the normative pillar (domain of social values,
norms, traditions), and the cognitive pillar (established cognitive structures in society
that are taken for granted such as mental models, beliefs). An important implication
of the institutional perspective is that individuals do not always take rational
decisions, rather decisions and behaviour are framed by certain presupposed
expectation. These expectations in turn legitimise individual actions and determine
behaviour.
Drawing from the institutional theory perspective, one can argue that the meanings
attached to career and the trajectories of careers will be context dependent. In the
Nigeria context, key factors that are likely to shape individual career decisions include
its specific economic conditions and socio-cultural factors (Ituma and Simpson,
2006). In terms of the former, career decisions are taken in the context of an uncertain
and insecure economic environment. While Nigeria is currently the world’s seventh
largest oil exporter, producing about 2.2 million barrels a day, its economy has been
ranked as the 19th poorest in the world (World Bank, 1997). The present state of the
Nigeria’s economy is characterized by uncertainty, high unemployment levels in
many sectors and a lack of an established welfare system. In terms of Scott’s
“regulative pillar”, there is no specified minimum wage for skilled workers in Nigeria.
As noted by Ovadje and Ankomah (2001) the Nigerian Labour Act which stipulates
national minimum wage, does not cover persons in administrative, executive,
technical and professional positions. These categories of employees are expected to
negotiate individually with their employers. Moreover, unlike in most Western
developed economies, credit facilities are hard to obtain and only available at very
high interest rates. Thus, most workers spend a large proportion of their salaries
meeting basic food and utilities needs and, as Ituma and Simpson (2006) found, often
give priority to career moves that will better their economic circumstance.
In terms of its socio-cultural context and Scott’s “normative pillar”, Nigeria is a
country with a rich cultural heritage. One of the main features of Nigeria’s distinctive
culture is the importance attached to the extended family system. Here, close and not
so close family members (e.g. distant cousins and their spouses and children) form a
6
social network of relationships which serves as a form of social insurance. In essence,
the extended family system reinforces values such as sharing and mutuality,
adherence to social obligations and the need to maintain strong social and personal
relations. These values and practices exert normative pressures toward behaviours
oriented towards obligations and commitments which, to some extent, stand in place
of the established social security and welfare systems of more developed countries.
In terms of Scott’s cognitive pillar, these factors are likely to impact on the way
individuals in Nigeria view their obligations and hence the meaning attached to their
career. Individuals in Nigeria are likely to make career choices taking into
consideration the socio-economic conditions and the obligations and commitments
they have as a result of their membership of the extended family institution. These
“mental modes” concerning career goals are likely to mediate the relationship
between career orientation and subsequent career choice.
RESEARCH APPROACH
The research was conducted in two phases and adopted a mixed method approach,
involving the use of semi-structured interviews (in the first phase) and questionnaires
(in the second phase). The two methods are discussed in detail below. The research
sample was drawn from IT workers in Nigeria. IT workers can be seen to be
characteristic (in terms of educational background, training, skills, job components) of
the more general category of skilled labour. This has potential to enhance the
generalisability of the findings beyond the specificities of this particular occupational
group.
THE QUALITATIVE METHOD
The qualitative approach involved interviews with 30 IT workers (9 women and 21
men) between February and April 2004. The interview participants were randomly
selected from the membership list of Nigerian Computer Society. Participants’ age
ranged from 26-45 years. Their tenure in the industry varied from 5-9 years, while
their educational qualification varied from professional IT certificate to Master’s
7
degree. An interview protocol was adapted from Schein’s (1990) career anchor
interviews. The interview questions are shown in Table 1.
Analysis of the qualitative date involved the use of a grounded theory approach which
involved developing concepts, categories and theories that are “grounded” in the
collected field data (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). The first stage involved the verbatim
transcription of interview data. Secondly, a coding scheme was developed to organise
data and to segment and identify patterns of response. Different codes were
subsequently developed to capture the motivations underpinning career/job changes.
Finally, codes with similar characteristics were identified and where appropriate
amalgamated to form categories. Any category that shared common elements with
another was amalgamated to form a core category. At this stage, the data revealed six
dominant categories representing the different career interests expressed by the
participants. To enhance the validity of the findings, independent coding on a random
sample of the transcript was undertaken by two researchers, both familiar with the
objectives of this research and with significant past experiences in applying
qualitative coding procedures. Data was analyzed separately and then corroboration
given to emerging themes by comparing/discussing individual interpretations and
highlighting areas of commonality.
THE QUANTITATIVE METHOD
The quantitative method involved the use of questionnaires to collect data from IT
workers from April-June 2004. This involved the examination of the relative strength
of the different career anchors identified from interviews. Out of the 500
questionnaires that were sent out 336 questionnaires (67.2%) were returned. The
demographic profile of the respondent is presented in Table 2.
“take in Table 2”
The sample consisted of 360 skilled workers drawn from two main sources: 20 IT
companies based in Lagos (157 respondents) and participants of an IT symposium
which was held in Lagos (179 respondents). The questionnaire was divided into two
sections. The first section focused on assessing the career anchors of the respondents
while the second section focused on demographic variables. The items that assessed
career anchors were developed from the findings from the qualitative research.
8
However, some standard items from previous research by Schein (1978) were also
modified and included. The items that were adopted from Schein’s study were those
items that tested the factors that collaborated with the factors we identified in the
current study (e.g., stability, challenge, lifestyle).
The career anchor variables were measured on a five-point Likert Scale ranging from
(1) “Of no importance/ Not at all true” to (5) “extremely important/completely true”.
Each of the career anchors was represented and assessed by four items. The
questionnaires were pilot tested on a sample of 10 IT workers in Nigeria for
validation. A factor analysis (varimax rotation) was performed (using SPSS) to
determine whether the six career anchors identified from the qualitative study were
empirically distinct and independent from each other. The results of the factor
analysis produced six factors which account for 78 percent of the variance. This
suggests that a six-factor career anchor is appropriate for this study. Factors were
interpreted where they have Eigenvalues greater than 1.0 and item loadings greater
than 0.50 on the rotated matrix. Basically, the criteria that was used to identify and
interpret factors was that a given item should load 0.50 or higher on a specific factor
and have a loading no greater than 0.45 on other factors. The result of the principal
component analysis is presented in Table 3.
The pattern of loading confirms that the four items hypothesised to make up each
career anchors loaded heavily on the anticipated factor. One exception was an item
that was anticipated to load on being in charge but which ended up loading on the
being stable anchor. This was the questionnaire item “I would only stay for a long
time in an organisation if I am given the opportunity to manage human and other
resources”. This item loaded more heavily on the “being stable” anchor and did not
load up to 0.35 in any other anchor. The loading reflects some inclusion of stability
into its meaning and content. Thus, it was incorporated into the items that form the
being stable anchor. As a result, five items were used to examine the being stable
anchor while three items where used to examine the being in charge anchor. To
further validate the homogeneity/ internal reliability of the items within each anchor,
their Cronbach’s alphas were calculated and results shows that all the scale
reliabilities are above the 0.7 level which Cronbach (1951) suggest as acceptable for
basic research (see Table 4). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the
9
relationships between demographic variables-age, gender, educational qualificationand the average scores of career anchors. The results of these analyses are discussed
below.
FINDINGS FROM THE QUALITATIVE DATA
The findings from the semi-structured interviews revealed the existence of six career
anchors or orientations. These were being stable (9 participants), being marketable
(13 participants), being challenged (8 participants), being free (5 participants), being
balanced (6 participants), and being in charge (8 participants). The orientational
categories should not be viewed as representing different types of workers because
some of the participants expressed strong interest in more than one career anchor. The
characteristics of these six orientational categories are discussed below. The existence
of multiple career anchors supports Fieldman and Bolino’s (1996) assertion that
individuals are likely to have multiple important career and life goals.
BEING MARKETABLE
A number of the participants were primarily interested in continual learning and skill
development in order to enhance future career opportunities and remain employable.
This orientational category was labelled “being marketable”. Workers in this category
were focussed on working for organisations that offer extensive IT training and skill
development opportunities. They attributed this desire for marketability to the need to
meet personal and extended family obligations and to a personal interest in being
technically competent and knowledgeable.
“If I continue developing my IT skills I’ll be constantly approached by headhunters and I will be able to earn more money to take care of my family
responsibilities and social responsibilities in the village.”(Case 3)
“The more I learn the more I’ll get paid, and the better I’ll be able to take
care of my family...I always put into consideration the training and
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development opportunities available in an organisation before taking up a job.
The more training I get the more opportunities that will open for me and the
more likely that I will be getting good jobs that will enable me meet my
personal and family obligations.” (Case 8)
Others wished to avoid IT skill obsolescence and to keep up to date with the skills that
are recognised in the IT industry.
“The dynamic nature of the IT industry in Nigeria demands that I keep up-todate with the latest technologies in my technical area. My primary
consideration while taking any job has always been –will it extend my IT skill
portfolio.” (Case 6)
In sum, socio-cultural factors in the form of obligations to family and friends as well
as rapid technological advances were key factors identified by IT workers in seeking
the development of marketable skills. This may be reflective of the significance of the
“new career” discussed earlier which characterised by increasing need for portable
skills, knowledge and abilities across multiple firms (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996).
BEING STABLE
Some participants prioritised financial security over work content or rank in the
organization. This orientational category was labelled “being stable”. The participants
in this category considered the reputation of an organisation (e.g. to pay well, to pay
reliably, to consider employee welfare) as the most important factor in their career
decisions. Their desire for stability was related to the insecurity characteristic of the
Nigerian economy.
“You just never know what is going to happen. It’s hard enough finding a
good job, why mess with something good when you have it? …..I accepted this
job because this organisation has a solid work history of paying workers on
time and keeping dedicated employees. They also offer pensions scheme if you
work here for 10 years. With this I am covered and can take good care of
family problems and look after my elderly parents in the village.” (Case 20)
11
“…I am only interested in working for well established companies that will
offer me economic stability to enable me meet personal and family
obligations.” (Case 25)
“ …I was laid off by my former company and my family really struggled to
survive because I am the breadwinner. I will never work for a company
without a strong reputation. I don’t mind sacrificing high pay to get a lower
paying job that is secured and reliable.” (Case 28)
In sum, workers with the “being stable” career anchor were motivated by the desire
for job security and for future stability. This can be linked to high levels of
uncertainty within their economic and organizational contexts.
BEING CHALLENGED
Some of the participants were motivated by a desire for new challenge and for work
using the latest technologies. This orientational category was labelled “being
challenged”. These workers were keen to job hop to maximise the opportunities to
work in challenging projects and were sometimes willing to sacrifice high pay. Some
had rejected high paying jobs because of the mundane nature of the work involved on
the grounds that such work would constrain their creativity and reduce their
bargaining power in the industry in the event of a job loss.
“Good pay and benefits can get me to take up a job, but will not generate the
attitudinal commitment for me to remain in a company that does not offer
challenging work assignments. If I had to do the same thing over and over
again, I will quit.” (Case 6)
“I don’t mind taking a job at lower pay levels to work on a cutting edge IT
projects. I enjoy working in a challenging environment and keeping abreast
with technological advances in my area.”(Case 8)
“I will always prefer to move to any organisation that offers me variety in
terms of challenging IT projects rather than committing myself to working in
an organisation that offers no challenging IT project.” (Case 12)
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Many of the workers in this group were activating a long term plan to enter the
industry, having studied appropriate courses at university. This is unlike other
categories of workers who often transferred to IT out of other areas in search of better
economic circumstance.
BEING BALANCED
A number of participants expressed strong interest in balancing work and non-work
commitments and were drawn to organizations that allowed this balance to take place.
This orientational category was labelled “being balanced”. Preferred organizations
that offered flexibility in the form of part time work, shift work, contract work and
reduced hours. These workers were mostly women who expressed the importance
attached to personal fulfilment, family and flexibility.
“… Due to my past experience I always make a conscientious choice when
selecting my career to choose a job that would allow me the opportunity to
support my family. I will always want to be a good and supportive wife and
mother for my husband and children.” (Case 9)
“I do not joke with my family responsibilities. I have to give enough attention
and care to my husband and children. That is very important to me.” (Case 1)
“I find it difficult to take time away from work to take my child to hospital. My
boss shows his displeasure anytime I have to go off. I do not want to stay here
for a long time. I need to find a more conducive work environment that will
enable me give enough time to my family.” (Case 10)
Workers with the being balanced career motive accordingly sought career paths that
were compatible with family and other non-work responsibilities.
BEING FREE
The primary career motive for some participants was to be on their own, work at their
own pace and have a flexible schedule – rejecting externally imposed rules and
13
procedures. This career motive was labelled “being free”. These participants had an
orientation towards becoming entrepreneurs. Their overriding career interest was the
opportunity to be independent, to make their own decisions and to implement their
own technical ideas. Some choose to work for other organisations in the short term to
enable them to gain experience and to develop networks which would help them in
establishing their own business. They accordingly, while in employment, scanned the
environment for this opportunity.
“I earnestly desire to be on my own and do things the way I want to without
seeking approval.” (Case 30)
“…I find my present organisation quite restrictive and I am seriously
considering moving out to set up my own small IT consultancy firm. I
particularly look forward to the sense of achievement that comes with setting
up one’s own business and seeing it grow.” (Case 10)
“… Being allowed to work on my own without interference is a key issue for
me. It is the main reasons why I am thinking of leaving my present job to set
up my own small company.”(Case 15)
Workers with the being free career motive thus sought or were seeking career moves
which allowed them to become entrepreneurial within the industry, rejecting the
constraints (and boredom) of paid employment.
BEING IN CHARGE
Some participants were primarily interested in working for organisations that offered
them the opportunity to manage people and other resources. This orientational
category was labelled “being in charge”. The participants prioritised upward
progressions and gained satisfaction from carrying out managerial activities. Their
interest was to control, influence and supervise others towards achieving set tasks.
“…..I enjoy the opportunity this organisation offers me to supervise large
groups of people and I see myself still working for this organisation in the
foreseeable future as long as I remain in charge.”(Case 25)
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“……I want to be in front, I’ve always been in the backyard. They just
remember you when the network is having problems. I want to be at the top
where I can influence decisions and get recognised for my work.” (Case 20)
“I have always wanted to be in a managerial position. I want the opportunity
to manage different departments in the organisation in order to be able to
manage any organisation.”(Case 17)
IT workers interested in being in charge were concerned with maximising their
chances for achieving promotions and with gaining power and responsibility within
an organisation rather than specialising in a particular IT area.
FINDINGS FROM THE QUANTITATIVE DATA
As we have seen, six career anchors were identified in the first phase of the study.
These were being stable, being marketable, being challenged, being free, being
balanced, and being in charge. Given that a variety of career anchors were identified
among the participants and a number of the participants expressed interest in more
than one anchor, it was considered necessary to establish the career anchor that was
dominant for this group of workers. The quantitative study enabled the strength of the
identified anchors to be established. To this end, we followed the approach adopted
by Igbaria et al’s (1995) similar study of the career orientations of IS employees in
South Africa. This involved calculating the average score of each of the orientational
categories. The mean scores are presented in Table 4.
“take in Table 4”
From the table it can be seen that being stable and being marketable are the most
dominant anchors while being balanced is the lowest rated career motive. The
possible reasons for the importance attached to the different career anchors are
discussed below. There were some significant gender differences. Results showed that
male workers have a higher orientation to being in charge than their female
counterparts (4.05 vs. 3.75, F=12.9, p<0.05) while female workers have a higher
orientation to being balanced (3.86 vs. 2.75, F=55.9, p<0.05). There was also a
15
significant difference in terms of age. Older workers (i.e. those over the age of 45)
have a greater orientation to being in charge anchor (F=21.9, p<0.001) and to being
balanced (F=16.3, p<0.001). There was no significant difference in career orientation
by levels of educational qualification.
DISCUSSION
Drawing on institutional theory, which argues that societal context shapes behaviour
and decisions, this paper set out to explore the career anchors of individuals in Nigeria
and to assess their relative strength. Findings reveal four key issues. Firstly, in a
departure from Schein’s work, a new career orientation “being marketable” emerged
from the data. The interest in this anchor is largely based on the current economic
realities in Nigeria which is characterised by high unemployment and wide variations
in wages offered by organisations. This insecurity is heightened for this category of
workers because of the absence of minimum wage legislation. Thus, individuals
aspire to develop a portfolio of highly sought out skills in order to command sufficient
income to meet their obligations. This supports Scott’s emphasis on the significance
of a country’s regulative pillar for individual choices and decision making.
Secondly, there was no evidence of one of the anchors identified by Schein - “service
and dedication to a cause”. The absence of this anchor can be attributed to
differences in the national context between Schein’s work and the current study.
Drawing on Scott’s conceptualisation of the normative pillar as well as the cognitive
pillar, economic insecurity and the role of family obligations may mean that
individuals are more motivated by and “tuned into” instrumental factors that benefit
themselves and their family over the pursuance of broader ideas that benefit wider
society. This is in contrast to the West where people are interested in advancing social
issues that address wider societal values.
Thirdly, findings suggest some consistency between Schein and the current study in
terms of five of the six anchors identified (being stable, being balanced, being
challenged, being free, being in charge). However, the factors underlying the interest
in these anchors are different and are context dependent. For example, the being in-
16
charge anchor reflects, in terms of Scott’s normative pillar, the primacy afforded to
status and prestige (particularly for men) and the strong links these have with power
in Nigeria. In essence, while there are some observed similarities between the anchors
identified in this study and those proposed by Schein, underlying factors provide a
distinct empirical contribution.
Finally, the importance attached to these anchors is specific to the Nigerian context
and thus are different from other work in the area. The most important orientations
from the current study are being stable and being marketable. However, as noted
earlier in this paper, previous studies have shown that challenge and service is the
most dominant anchor in USA. Also, job security and service has been identified as
the most dominant in Taiwan while lifestyle has been identified as the most dominant
anchor in Israel.
The high importance attached to being stable and being marketable career anchors
can be related to the specific economic and cultural conditions in Nigeria. In terms of
the stability anchor, economic uncertainty and the collectivist nature of Nigerian
culture may well propel individuals to aspire to achieve stable economic
circumstances in order to provide support to members of their internal and external
family and also to meet their obligations. The strength of the stability anchor can also
be attributed to the lack of a solid welfare system that can cushion the effect of job
loss. In a similar vein, the strength of the “being marketable” anchor as noted above
can be attributed to the need for marketable skills in an uncertain economic
environment that will enable individuals to command sufficient income to meet their
obligations.
The being in charge anchor was the third most dominant orientation. As we have seen,
the relatively high importance attached to this orientation may be due to the benefits
(e.g. power advantage, high pay, prestige and social status) that can accrue from
holding a high position of authority in Nigeria. These factors accrue mainly to older
men in Nigerian society which explains the higher value placed on this anchor by
male respondents as well as those in an older (45+) age bracket. At the other end of
the scale, the low importance attached to “being challenged” is not surprising given
that it may involve sacrificing pay in order to work on challenging projects. Given the
17
economic conditions in Nigeria, and drawing on Scott’s cognitive pillar, workers are
more likely to be motivated by extrinsic factors (e.g. money) rather than intrinsic
factors (e.g. job satisfaction). This is supported to some extent by Hofstede (1991)
who found a bias in West Africa towards “masculine” values of competitiveness and
materialism, where motivation is largely based on the acquisition of money and
material possessions rather than on quality of life issues such as job satisfaction. The
higher value placed by women on the being balanced career anchor, reflective of the
priority given by women in Africa to quality of life issues as well as their traditional
role as primary home makers (Igbaria et al, 1995), may support this view. Equally,
the low importance given to the “being free” anchor may reflect current economic
conditions characterised by high instability, high interest rates and lack of availability
of venture capital - discouraging individuals from taking the risk of setting up their
own company.
The lowest rated career anchor was the “being balanced” orientation. Given the level
of economic uncertainty and the more materialistic and “masculine” values inherent
in Nigerian culture (Hofstede, 1991), economic success is a highly valued outcome.
Many musicians, for example, eulogise the achievements of economically- successful
individuals. A typical example is Oliver de Coque, a household name in the Nigerian
music industry known for his heroic praise songs. It is therefore common for people
to aspire to material wealth through hard work and the sacrifice of non-work
activities. The focus on work rather than balancing work and non-work commitment
suggest that the traditional proxies of assessing career success such as pay and
promotion (Greenhaus, 2003) are still dominant in Nigeria unlike in the West where
there is an increased interest in less tangible, subjective outcomes such as work-life
balance (Feingold and Mohrman, 2001), as well as a sense of meaning
(Wrzesniewski, 2002).
CONCLUSION
This paper set out to explore the career anchors of individuals in Nigeria, a region
relatively neglected in the literature. Findings suggest the continued significance of
18
traditional orientations to careers in Nigeria (based around predictability and stability)
as well as orientations associated with new career theory (the need for individuals to
take responsibility for the update of their skills to enhance their marketability). The
research has also highlighted the significance of contextual factors and supports the
continuing relevance of Scott’s (2001) three institutional pillars. In this respect we
have demonstrated the significance of the regulative pillar (e.g. through minimum
wage regulations), the normative pillar (e.g. through the role of family obligations)
and the cognitive pillar (e.g. through the priority given by individuals to instrumental
values). Together these serve to shape the motivations and careers of individuals.
Based on the findings of this study, we argue, along the lines of Thomas and Inkson
(2006), that in order to better understand individual’s career needs, we must progress
beyond the individualistic and decontextualised models offered by the majority of
studies and develop a more complex interpretation, which acknowledges the interplay
between individual careers and the wider institutional and national structures. This
supports the view (e.g. Budhwar and Baruch, 2003) that dominant Anglo-Saxon
assumptions about the nature of careers may not be applicable to other national
contexts. In particular, the dominant view of the career as a “project of the self”
(Grey, 1994) can be seen to be founded on Western based liberal democratic
principles of the autonomous self, responsible only for his or her own actions and
behaviours. This conceptualisation does not sit easily with collectivist orientations
found in countries such as Nigeria where obligations to others shape and constrain
individual choice. The practical implication of these findings is that HR managers in
developing countries should be cautious of adopting career management models
developed in the West where, as in the US, there is often a focus on the individual, on
rights and on the need to preserve autonomy and independence (Schneider and
Barsoux, 2003). This is likely to be out of step with the more collectivist orientation
in developing countries such as Nigeria. The desire for stability and the burden of
obligations may mean employees give preference to a reward system which
minimises uncertainty and risk. At the same time, there may be a greater preference
for financial incentives over non-financial incentives such as flexibility or holidays.
19
The extent to which the findings of this research can be generalized is constrained by the
selected context of the research. The career anchor typology developed in this study,
though tentative, can form the foundation for future research. A fruitful area of
inquiry may be the relationship between career anchors identified in this research and
external career outcomes, such as job satisfaction, motivation and retention, in
Nigeria. This would provide invaluable information for the career management of IT
workers in this context.
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22
APPENDIX
Table 1:
Interview protocol
The interview protocol consisted of
the following (repeated) series of
questions
The interview also contained questions
dealing with overall career goals and life
plans. These included:
(1)What was your next major change
in job or organisation
1) As you look over your career and life so far,
can you describe some times that you especially
enjoyed (did not enjoy) and what made them
enjoyable (not enjoyable)?
(2) How did this come about? What
motivated the change?
(2) As you look ahead in your career, what
things do you look forward to (want to avoid)?
(3) How did you feel about the
change? How did it relate to your
goals?
(3) What is the most important career need that
you will not give up when forced to make a
career decision?
Table 2: Demographic Profile of the respondents
FREQUENCY
PERCENTAGE
GENDER
Male
Female
233
103
69
31
AGE
18-25
26-35
36-45
45 and above
33
172
103
24
9
51
31
7
Education
Primary
Secondary
Diploma
Bachelors
Masters
Doctorate
1
16
27
200
85
5
.3
5
8
60
25
1.5
23
Table 3 - Rotated Factor Matrix
Questionnaire Items (Variables)
Factor 1
Being
Challenged
Factor2
Being
Free
Factor 3
Being
Marketable
Factor4
Being
Balanced
Factor5
Being
Stable
I will feel successful in my career only if I
face and overcome very difficult technical
challenges….
I feel very fulfilled in my career when I
have solved seemingly unsolvable technical
problem
An endless variety of technical challenges
in my career is what I really want
Working on challenging technical problems
that are almost unsolvable is….
I would rather leave my organisation than
accept a job that would reduce my
autonomy and freedom
I am most fulfilled in my work when I am
completely free to define my own tasks,
schedules and procedures
The chance to do a job my own way, free of
rules and constraints, is more important to
me than any other factor
I will feel successful in my career only if I
achieve complete freedom to pursue an
implement my technical ideas
I always seek to develop marketable skills
and knowledge that will boost my
employment prospects outside my present
organisation
A job that provides the opportunity for an
individual to continuously develop
marketable technical skills is
I would not accept a job that will not offer
me the opportunity of improving and
extending my marketable technical skill
base
I seek to develop marketable technical skills
from the job situations I experience to
enable me get another job easily
I dream of a career that will permit me to
integrate my personal, family and work
needs
I would rather leave my organization than
to be put into a job that would compromise
my ability to pursue personal/family
concerns
Balancing the demands of personal and
professional life is more important to me in
my career than any other factor
I will feel successful in life only if I have
been able to balance my personal, family
and career requirements
I dream of having a career that will allow
me feel a sense of security and stability
I only seek for jobs in organisations that can
offer me employment security
I will feel very satisfied in my career when I
have guaranteed employment stability
An organization that will provide me
stability through guaranteed work, a good
retirement program, etc. is.
The process of supervising influencing,
leading, and controlling people at all
levels is
I will feel successful in my career only if I
attain a managerial position in an
organisation
To be in a position of leadership and
influence is
I would only stay for a long time in an
organisation if I am given the opportunity
to manage human and other resources
0.892
0.170
0.020
0.012
0.022
Factor6
Being
in
charge
0.000
0.853
0.150
0.021
0.014
0.021
0.102
0.841
0.120
-0.019
-0.001
-0.022
0.112
0.794
0.140
0.215
0.014
-0.012
0.002
0.185
0.860
-0.228
0.110
-0.184
0.021
0.170
0.843
-0.177
0.111
0.132
0.209
0..241
0.795
-0.282
0.104
0.180
0.137
0..208
0.785
-0.003
0.203
0.124
0.221
0..205
0.215
0.835
-0.112
.0216
0.012
0..350
0.029
0.792
0.204
0.125
0.274
0..240
0.105
0.755
0.307
0.198
0.227
-0.010
0.023
0.706
0.275
0.204
-0.050
0.172
0.008
0.210
0.810
0.266
0.075
0.256
0.020
0.385
0.760
0.121
-0.014
-0.178
-0.010
0.171
0.712
0.147
0.306
-0.140
0.010
-0.087
0.682
0.296
0.164
-0.016
0.012
-0.035
0.430
0.780
0.069
-0.110
-0.001
-0.161
0.120
0.753
-0.112
-0.158
-0.021
-0.212
0.304
0.694
0.072
0.051
-0.022
-0.012
0.123
0.653
0.175
0.285
-0.034
0.012
0.116
0.031
0.730
0.020
-0.024
0.022
0.016
0.032
0.680
0.041
-0.131
0.021
-0.001
-0.012
0.658
0.180
-0.029
0.012
0.014
0..576
0..325
(Shaded items are those included in calculation of factor score)
24
Table 4- Mean Scores and Cronbach Alphas
Career Anchors
Being
Being
Being
Being
Being
Being
free
in charge
marketable
challenged
stable
balanced
Mean
3.85
3.96
4.07
3.89
4.18
3.09
Ranking
5
3
2
4
1
6
Cronbach Alpha
.83
.71
.73
.78
.81
.76
25