WORKSHOP ON CLIMATE, TOURISM AND RECREATION
from 5 -10 October 2001,
Department of Meteorology and Climatology, University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
Organised by the International Society of Biometeorology,
Commission on Climate, Tourism and Recreation
Abstracts
Methods for assessing relationships between climate and tourism
Assessing climate for tourism purposes:
Existing methods and tools for the thermal complex
Andreas Matzarakis, Meteorological Institute, University of Freiburg, Germany
The most important direct affects of climate tourism occur at the micro scale. These are
significant for both on the tourism industry and the holiday makers themselves, but are also
of importance to the planning and design of tourism buildings, recreation facilities and a
variety of other issues. With some modification, existing methods for assessing climate in
human biometeorology can be used for the tourism climatology. For example, thermal
indices that are derived from the energy balance of the human body can be useful here. The
problem is that input environmental data required for these schemes are rather specialised
and are not usually available. Standard climate data are air temperature, humidity and wind
speed. However, the most important environmental factors for deriving modern thermal
indices are the short and longwave radiation (and the derived mean radiant temperature).
These can be determined using special techniques. The RayMan model that has been
developed for urban climate studies is presented here. It is shown that this can be a helpful
tool for the assessment of tourism and climate related questions. Sample analyses for
different parts of the world are presented and discussed.
Assessment of recreational potential of bioclimate based on the human heat balance
Krzysztof Blazejczyk, Bydgoszcz Academy, Faculty of Geography, Bydgoszcz, Poland
There are various methods used for evaluation of bioclimatic conditions for tourism and
recreation. They based on the simple meteorological characteristics (precipitation, cloudiness,
temperature etc.) or on biometeorological indices (e.g. Equivalent or Effective Temperature). While the
methods mentioned give general, bioclimatic evaluation of the studied area or season they do not
direct relation to the human organism, i.e. its physiological response on weather stimuli. Only the
indices derived from the human heat balance considerations (e.g. Physiologically Equivalent
Temperature, Perceived Temperature, Standard Equivalent Temperature) includes physiological
reactions in man. However, for the complex assessment of meteorological conditions for recreation
and tourism additional information regarded precipitation, radiation stimuli and thermal extremities
during day-night stay are necessary.
The paper presents the new weather classification created for the needs of tourism and
recreation. It base on the human heat balance (HHB) analysis. The HHB is the complex method
considering both, meteorological stimuli (solar radiation, air temperature and humidity, wind speed) as
well as physiological responses of an organism (skin temperature, sweating). Man-environment heat
exchange model (MENEX) was applied for the simulations of the HBB and the BioKlima ® software
package was used for the calculations.
The classification proposed considers two weather characteristics:
- daily amplitude of air temperature, which illustrates thermal contrasts of the weather,
- daily sum of precipitation, which illustrates atmospheric limits for staying outdoors.
The following human heat balance characteristics are also considered:
- amount of solar radiation absorbed by man, which illustrate the intensity of radiation stimuli,
- predominated way of heat loss (convection, evaporation or radiation), which illustrate the
physiological response on meteorological stimuli,
- arduousness of hygro-thermal stimuli, expressed by the Heat Stress Index,
- heat load in man, which evaluates – in the complex way – thermal sensations during various tourist
and recreational activities.
The classification was used for the evaluation of bioclimatic potential of several recreational
areas of Poland. As an example the sites represented seaside (Baltic sea) and mountain regions
(Carpathians) were chosen . There are observed significant differences between the sites compared.
At the seaside the great seasonal variability of bio-thermal conditions is observed. The Summer
weather seems to be most useful for various recreational activity; in the Spring and Autumn active
recreation and tourism is preferred, however the Winter time is rather useless. In the mountains the
most favourable are Autumn and Spring months. In the Summer time the bioclimatic conditions are
less favourable due to frequent occurrence of arduousness hygro-thermal stimuli. Relatively useful,
especially for active forms of recreation and tourism is also Winter season. However, in the mountain
region great regional and local variability of bioclimate occurs.
Evaluating domestic tourists' attitudes to British Weather - a qualitative approach,
Melanie Limb and Greg Spellman, University College Northampton, United Kingdom
Previous research has attempted to develop and map quantitative measures of the climatic
well being of tourists (eg Mieczowski’s Tourism Climatic Index). These have been based on
the assumption that a majority of tourists are entirely motivated by climatic conditions, of a
certain and common nature. Mintel (1991) claimed that 73 percent of respondents to a UK
survey cited 'good weather' as the main reason to go abroad. This study develops the idea
that tourist decisions related to trips within the UK by UK residents has a far more
sophisticated relationship with climatic conditions and these cannot be adequately captured
by simple quantitative indices. The paper develops a qualitative methodology using in-depth
discussion groups to investigate the importance of tourist memories and experiences in
relation to climate. It is found that definitions of 'bad' and 'good' weather are more complex
than quantitative indices suggest. Some people show ambivalence in their attitudes towards
weather conditions and their decisions involve trade-offs between the risk of poor weather
and other aspects of the holiday experience.
CLIMATE AND TOURISM INDEX (CTI). A ASSESSMENT IN VARADERO, Barbaro Moya,
CITMA, Matenzas, Cuba
The study of thermal comfort of one zone could be an acceptable sign for evaluation of the
potential needed for outside activities. But it could be just a sign cause it does not consider
the occurrence of rain that is an influent climatic variable and in some of the cases decide the
celebration of outdoor activities.
Having all this in mind and the importance of outdoor activities in good climatic conditions for
tourism we found an index relating thermal comfort and rain. We use PMV (Predicted Mean
Vote) and PET (Physiological Effective Temperature) like thermal comfort variables involving
climatic and physiological information and the duration of the rain. We called it Climate and
Tourism Index (CTI).
We also develop CTI assessment in Varadero, the first touristic place in Cuba, a tropical
country, for January, April, and July 2000 like sample of winter time, transition to summer
time, and summer itself.
Implications of extreme atmospheric events for tourism and recreation
ANALYSIS OF A HEAT WAVE PHENOMENON OVER GREECE AND IT’S IMPLICATIONS
FOR TOURISM AND RECREATION,
Balafoutis, Ch.,J. and Makrogiannis, T.,J., Department of Meteorology and Climatology,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
As it is known the climatic conditions is a very important one when someone planning a
holiday in a certain country. Especially the analysis of extreme weather events helps the
tourism ,in general , very much.In this paper the heat wave phenomenon over the mainland
of Greece, during the days 18 to 21 August 1999, has been studied mainly from a synoptic
point of view. The predominant synoptic conditions at the surface was an anticyclonic flow
contributing positively to transfer Tc air masses from Sahara desert to Greece. SW flux was
predominating
into layers of the middle
troposphere. This type of circulation gives an
intensive negative vorticity in the middle troposphere and a warm advection in the lower
troposphere, over the studied area.Meanwhile the main axis of the Subtropical Jet Stream, at
200-hPa level, was displaced far north from the Balkans with a maximum wind speed of 100
Knots. Beneath the jet stream and south of its axis, was taking
place a large-scale
subsidence. This downward flow of tropospheric air contributes in a warmer advection,
because of the adiabatic heating. That was actually , the ‘key’ synoptic system for the heat
wave phenomenon ,during these days, which is a very important element for the heat wave
prediction over Greece.
Links Among Climate, Forest Fire, and Recreation in the US Southwest
Barbara J. Morehouse, University of Arizona, USA
Forests rank among the foremost destinations for recreation and tourism, and are particularly
valued in warm semi-arid areas such as the US Southwest. Yet, while these areas provide
many recreational opportunities, forest fire can pose a serious hazard to visitors. In the US
Southwest this hazard is elevated due to high fuel-load buildups resulting from long-term fire
suppression policies and to climatic influences. Tree-ring evidence indicates that large
wildfires in the region are linked to synoptic climate processes, notably ENSO. Of particular
note, the pattern of an unusually wet winter followed by two unusually dry winters correlates
strongly with widespread fire activity during the following fire season. Ironically, these same
dry warm conditions may stimulate greater recreational use of the forests, thus increasing
human risk. Prescribed burning, designed to reduce wildfire hazard, can pose additional risk
if the fire goes out of control, as occurred near Los Alamos, New Mexico last summer.
Increased use of climate information and forecasts can provide a tool for addressing
management issues at the climate-fire-recreation interface. Knowledge of how climate
information is being used by tourism marketers, local recreation-oriented businesses, and
visitors themselves, can also provide important insights for planners and managers. This
paper explores management of tourism and recreation in the context of climate and forest
fire.
MORE HEAT AND DROUGHT- CAN MEDITERRANEAN TOURISM SURVIVE AND
PROSPER?, Allen Perry, Department of Geography, University of Wales Swansea
Summer heat-waves in southern Europe have become more frequent. They are forecast to
increase even more in frequency in association with projected climate change as a result of
global warming The impact of very hot weather on the tourism industry of the Mediterranean
will be considered. The measures and responses that can be adopted to alleviate the
impacts will be reviewed. Adaptive responses can be learnt from other areas that experience
intense summer heat and from a consideration of the views of holidaymakers to the problems
that can accompany excessive summer heat. The use of indices to measure the desirability
of the Mediterranean in relation to other potential holiday destinations will be explored.
Future tourism scenarios in the Mediterranean need to consider also changing demographic
and economic conditions. Climate change will present new challenges but also lead to new
opportunities for tourist investment to capitalise on the new environmental conditions.
Climate as a natural resource-base (of an area) for tourism
Economic significance of climate and climate variability for the tourism industry
Effects of weather and climate on tourism ‘demand’
Climate impacts on the demand for tourism, Maureen Agnew, UEA, Great Britain
Climate impacts on international and domestic tourism are examined using: (1) a quantitative
approach of regression modelling, supplemented by (2) a qualitative approach using surveys
of the perception of climate impacts and in particular of climate extremes. Four countries
were involved in the study: UK, The Netherlands, Germany and Italy. Temperature has the
greatest influence on international tourism. The optimal summer temperature for attracting
tourists to a country is estimated to be 21°C, with little deviation from country to country. In
hot years, tourists tend to prefer domestic to foreign beach holidays. For domestic tourism,
the relationship with temperature is usually positive in the same month, except in winter
sports regions. A summer warming of 1°C is estimated to increase domestic holidays by 0.84.7%. The climate impact depends on destination type; for example, coastal resorts in Italy
respond more favourably to summer temperature increases than inland resorts. There is
some indication that weather in the intermediate seasons (spring and autumn) has a greater
influence on tourist behaviour than is the case in winter and summer.
The public perception survey suggests that during an unusually hot summer, people are
more likely to change their plans for day trips and short breaks than for their main holiday.
Those that do change their holiday plans stay either at home or in their own country. The
importance of weather/climate for short holiday trips, domestic trips and spontaneous trips is
generally understood by management in the tourism industry. However, tour operators and
managers plan their marketing strategies with very short time horizons and claim not to
incorporate climate considerations. Nevertheless, tourism suppliers have shown some
attempts to weatherproof the industry and tourism managers have a tendency to use bad
weather as an excuse for poor tourism figures.
Needs of the tourist and travel industries for climate and weather information
Climate and Bioclimate information for tourism in Greece
Andreas Matzarakis, Meteorological Institute, University of Freiburg, Germany
Weather, climate and tourism are interconnected in many different ways. All of them are of local as
well as global significance. Weather and climate information is of interest to both tourists and the
tourist industry. Information on climate is useful for planning vacations. This information can be
obtained via the popular media (e.g. tourist guides) or weather services. During the vacation period
actual weather information is more important than climate information. In this period climate
information does not play an important role. Examples of climate information that is often available
are air temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, daily sunshine duration and water temperature on
monthly basis. Additional information that is recommended (especially with high spatial resolution)
includes data on UV-radiation, air pollution, noise and bioclimatic conditions. Climate, bioclimate and
weather information for tourism in Greece is presented.
CLIMATOLOGICAL BASIS FOR PLANNING IN MOUNTAIN RECREATION, Marjana Gajic-Capka,
Meteorological and Hydrological Service of Croatia, Zagreb, CROATIA
Mount Velebit is located along the eastern Adriatic coast150 km in length with the highest
summits of about 1700 m a.s.l. Its northern part has been proclaimed as National Park. This
mountainous ridge presents the boundary between the maritime climate at the Adriatic coast
and mountain continental climate over the inland. This area has been mainly intended for
tourism and recreation. The specific mountain climate of Velebit under the strong maritime
influence has been performed for the purpose of planning in mountain recreation by decade
mean and frequency values of climatological elements, as well as probability and time
distribution of snow data. It is supposed that ten-day period is much more convenient for
holiday planning than most frequently used monthly interval. The data basis for this analysis
are meteorological measurements at main meteorological station Zavizan established in 1953
on the northern part of Velebit Mountain on 1594 m a.s.l.
The influence of the weather upon the recreational use
of the Danube Flood Plains National Park, Vienna, Austria
Christine Brandenburg, Universität für Bodenkultur, Vienna, Austria
The day of the week as well as the weather have an important influence upon the kind and degree of
use of the area for recreational purposes. At a first cursory glance, the facts seem to be quite clear:
Over the weekend and whenever the weather is nice, one might expect a higher number of visitors
than on rainy workdays.
Unknown is the degree of influence of the respective factors, i.e. of the weather and day of the week,
and their interaction. But only a knowledge of existing relationships between the numbers of visitors
and weather as well as weekday permits a detailed description of recreational activities in a certain
area. Such a knowledge is essential for any efficient management of protected areas and tourism
regions. These necessary management activities are: the decision about manpower planning, the
management of visitors in space and time, depending on the required protection of the habitat and the
species there, the organisation of public transport and the directing of private transport. The
knowledge gap is known for a long time and people in charge of protected areas as well as tourist
managers have been asking more and more frequently for verification of the correlations backed by
reliable statistical data instead of mere qualitative descriptions.
For one year, video-monitoring was used to continuously register visitors of the Danube Flood Plains
National Park at several entrance points from dawn to dusk. Data related to visitors, such as their
overall number and the way they used the recreational area, were correlated with meteorological data.
The influence of certain meteorological elements, such as temperature, clouding, rainfall, and indices
like the Physiological Equivalent Temperature, upon the use of the National Park for recreational
purposes was investigated with the help of statistical modelling. The calculation of the Physiological
Equivalent Temperature was done by the program Rayman (Matzarakis et al. 2000).
Among other things, one result of these endeavours is a model for the prognosis of visitor loads and
the type of use depending on the two factors weather and day of the week.
Role and significance of climate in itinerary planning and air-travel schedules
Advisory services for proper climatic adaptation of travellers
Movement adaptation to areas with great variability of nature factors, Elena Golovina and
Marianna Makhova, Russian State Hydrometeorological University, St.-Petersburg, Russia
One of the actual problems of adaptology is a forecast of acclimatization load from
movement by particular root in definite season. The load is more significant when distinction
of nature-geographical parameters between begin & finish of the root are great. At increasing
of contrasts between nature conditions, the intensity of adaptation processes become more
noticeable; the function normalization period become longer & adaptation is more frequent.
The problem of regional standardization of physiological indexes is an important in this field
of study. Such analysis let's develop some recommendation about upgrading of informational
base of movement planning & management of physiological adaptation processes. For
investigation of geographical variability of species statistical analysis of attendance
environment & organism indexes is used in conditions of long live of a man in definite place.
The relation between humidity, geochemistry & temperature parameters, O2, food and
population characteristic is proved. The variability of meteofactors or their time derivatives
are more significant for man then simply meteofactors. It is necessary to research nature
conditions gradient, because adaptation is derivative not only from external conditions but
and from regional contrast between physiological stereotype form conditions & present
conditions.
The base for such calculation is a method of bioclimatograms, which consider a statistics of
definite meteorological situations appearance frequency, and classify as typical, seldom &
very seldom. Nature conditions which are typical for one region can be seldom or very
seldom for another area. The movement in to the areas with great variation of
meteoparameters develop load, which connected with adaptation to wider range of external
factors.
With a help of examined data it is possible to plan movements through regions by
minimalisation acclimatization load criteria. The developing of differential area maps, which
are more popular for traveling will be possible.
Weather and climate as limiting factors in tourism
THE BIOCLIMATIC DIVERSITY OF BULGARIA: A RESOURCE OR A LIMITING FACTOR
OF THE RECREATION AND TOURISM?, Zoya Mateeva, Institute of Geography at Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
Placed along the middle latitudes, the territory of Bulgaria combines climatic features of far
more northern and southern placed areas. The general influence of the solar and circulatory
factors on the climate of this small territory is combined with the specific impact of the local
physical-geographical factors, represented by the high mountain systems as Rila, Pirin,
Rhodopy, Balkan, etc., as well as the basin of Black sea too. The influence of these factors
induces considerable seasonal and space climatic diferences, varing from tropical to arctic
climates. What is the role of the corresponding bioclimatic diversity caused by the climatic
variety of Bulgaria, for the recreation and tourism?
This paper seeks for an answer of this question, basing on the method of the heat balance of
the human body. On this base it is established, by the indexes like "a heat load of an
organism" or "a space bioclimatic contrast", etc., that the bioclimatic diversity on the territory
of Bulgaria varies from "thermal-neutral conditions" to "extreme heat stress" (both a stress
from overcooling or overheating). However from the point of view of recreation-and-tourism
the next fact is important: in any given period of the yearly climatic cycle there are places at
the territory of Bulgaria with favourable bioclimatic conditions; any given place of the territory
of Bulgaria has favourable bioclimatic conditions at least in one period of the year. The
planning of an optimal recreational&tourist activity requires a close preliminary bioclimatic
reference. In other case a risk to fall in a discomfort bioclimatic situation is quite possible any
time, and any place here.
THE EFFECT OF CLIMATE ON THE USE OF OPEN SPACES IN THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT:
RELATION TO TOURISM, Marialena Nikolopoulou, Centre for Renewable Energy Sources, Pikermi,
Greece
The paper concentrates on the effects of climate on the use of outdoor spaces in the urban
environment, which is particularly important for the activities that are carried out in the area
and consequently for tourism too. For most European cities, which are rich of cultural
heritage and therefore attract a great number of tourists throughout the year, this parameter
is of great importance, as tourism presents an important economic factor.
Understanding the richness of microclimatic characteristics in outdoor spaces, and the
comfort implications for the people using them can assist urban “accommodation”, enhance
touristic development and planning of cities, as well as development of wide scale projects,
e.g. EXPO parks.
Improved microclimatic conditions have major implications for the development of cities. By
controlling sources of discomfort, sedentary activities, the use of public transport, cycling and
walking, are promoted. Successful areas attract large numbers of people, which in turn
attract businesses, workers, residents, and the area becomes economically profitable.
Finally successful outdoor spaces can benefit the image of the city. Such issues are key
parameters for tourism and operators organising recreational excursions.
The underlying hypothesis is, that thermal and by implication comfort conditions, affect
people’s behaviour and usage of outdoor spaces. Responses to the microclimate may be
unconscious, but they often result in a different use of open space in different climatic
conditions. Indeed it has been revealed that microclimatic parameters strongly influence
thermal sensations, as well as the use of open urban spaces throughout the year. Therefore,
climate should be taken into consideration at the intermediate scale of the urban block (a
scale which has received little attention in research), integral to user satisfaction and
therefore to the success of the space.
This issue is extensively examined in the research project RUROS (Rediscovering the Urban
Realm and Open Spaces), whereas some of the early findings of the project based on the
extensive monitoring of open spaces, across Europe will be presented.
Consideration of such issues can ultimately assist touristic development and the tourism
industry.
BIOMETEOROLOGICAL POTENTIAL OF CROATIAN ADRIATIC COAST, Ksenija Zaninović,
Meteorological and Hydrological Service of Croatia, Zagreb, Croatia
This article deals with the analysis of biometeorological conditions in the period 1979-1998 at 8
meteorological stations along the Croatian Adriatic coast: Rovinj (Istra Peninsula), Crikvenica (Kvarner
Bay), Šibenik (middle Adriatic coast) and Dubrovnik (southern Adriatic coast) at the coast, as well as
at the islands Mali Lošinj, Vela Sestrica, Hvar and Palagruža. The most comfortable periods at the
Adriatic coast are April and May as well as September and October. During the hottest summer
months July and August it is warm in the morning and evening and hot in the afternoon. Due to the
cooling effect of the sea and the wind, the excess heat episodes are rare and they happen mostly only
in the afternoon. From the late autumn until the early sprig, the biometeorological conditions are ideal
for the sport activities.
MOUNTAIN WEATHER AND CLIMATE INFORMATION FOR TOURISTS AND TOURIST INDUSTRY
Tanja Cegnar, Hydrometeorological Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia,
Weather refers to the atmosphere’s current state as people feel it. With the invention of more and
more sophisticated instrumentation, a more objective, quantitative description based on the
measurement of solar radiation, precipitation, air pressure wind speed and other variables replaced
the once rather qualitative characterization of weather (sunshine, cloudiness, rain, storms, etc.). Due
to this development a need for translation of the measured values of meteorological variables into a
physiologically relevant variables increased. In the Alps, where space and time variability of
meteorological variables is much greater than over the flat terrain, this is even more important.
Therefore, special weather forecasts for the mountain region are required, taking into account
variability in time and space, but also possible severe weather events. To emphasize peculiarities of
the mountain weather it is necessary to include some biometeorological relevant variables (describing
thermal comfort, increased solar radiation at high altitude, especially UV radiation) to complement the
usual meteorological information. On the every day base a comprehensive information about the
complex impact of weather on human well being should be provided to tourists, sportsmen and
permanent inhabitants in the Alps.
Climate in its original meaning described a local or regional property of the environment, a set of
conditions difficult to define precisely and completely but considered to be of exceptional importance
for life. When we talk about climate we should think about the climate system, proper statistics and the
impact of climate. Again there is a need to translate the fully meteorological entity of climate into the
physiologically relevant description.
Comprehensive climatic information is needed to ensure development of environment friendly
economy, mainly prosperous tourist industry, in the alpine region. The most common approach in
climatology is to compute statistics on monthly base, but for most users a month is a rather coarse
time resolution, it is better to adopt periods of ten days, especially for bioclimatological purposes.
Tourists usually spend at one particular destination only a week or two, not the entire month. Also for
ecosystems a month is quite a long period and more detailed information is required.
The height of the Alps is such that from the foothills to the Alpine crest the mean temperature
decreases by typically some 15–20 °C, with accompanying large spatial gradients in the soil type and
cover and in the types of ecosystems. The mountain range’s scale and geometry enables it both to
modify and to trigger weather systems and to establish distinct climatic characteristics. The Alps
demarks the boundary between the midlatitude temperate climate and the Mediterranean climate.
The severity of Alpine weather and the occurrence of several distinctive orographically related
atmospheric flow phenomena (e.g., the wind systems of the Bise, Bora, Foehn, and Mistral; Alpine lee
cyclogenesis events; and orographic precipitation enhancement) attract interest and stimulate
scientific investigation. These phenomena have a paramount importance in bioweather forecasts,
because of their high biotropy.
Data from sites at different altitudes indicate an increase of insolation with altitude during winter and a
decrease during summer. On the scale of individual valleys, the valley slopes’ orientation with respect
to the sun as well as shading effects by neighbouring mountains also control the absorption of shortwave radiation. Over complex terrain, the resulting surface temperature contrast drives a range of
mountain wind systems. Over individual slopes, the response to diurnal radiative variation takes the
form of upslope winds during the day and downslope winds at night. These slope wind circulation are
accompanied by and coupled with low-level airflow up and down the valleys.
The most outstanding difference between Alpine and the lowland climate is the absence of heat load.
Mainly because of the altitude, but also because of the presence of valley and slope breezes, and
presence of woods with their characteristic microclimate. The shielding of the south side against cold
air advances from the north and northwest as well as influences on the distribution of cloud cover and
hence solar insolation contribute to the regional enhancement of the temperature gradient across the
Alps.
The Alpine precipitation reveals a great spatial variability from the scale of the whole Alps to that of
single slopes, and this concerns both the long term mean as well as the occurrence of strong
precipitation. Particular interest in Alpine precipitation also arises from the frequent occurrence of
strong precipitation events in the region and their attendant adverse effects. Either directly by flooding
populated valley floors, or indirectly, by triggering landslides and avalanches, severe precipitation can
cause catastrophic damage to agriculture and human infrastructure.
The seasonal snow cover, glaciers and permafrost regions are characteristic feature of the Alpine
landscape and constitute an integral part of the regional climate system. It is relevant for ecosystems
and human infrastructure in the region (agriculture, tourism, water resources, hydro–power,etc.). For
Alpine areas of elevations between 1000 and 3000 m m.s.l. the snow cover is predominantly seasonal.
In the last years several catastrophic snow avalanches occurred in the Alps.
Another very important feature of the Alpine climate is its clear, non-polluted air, because the local
sources of pollution are limited to those related to household heating. Certainly we can't exclude the
presence of air pollution transport from cities and industrial zones, but because of relatively narrow
valleys with different orientation it is most likely that it is rather low if compared to those of the
lowlands. For those suffering of hay fever the absence or relatively limited presence of pollen may be
an important feature of the mountain climate.
Places interested in promoting tourism are developing programs offering the guided recreation in a
healthy climate for those willing to improve their physical resistance in a beautiful natural environment.
Vacations at high altitude have a positive influence on performance and training effects. After a drop in
performance at the beginning, training at high altitude causes an intensification of cardio-circulation
adaptation. It is also well known that weather and climate have a considerable influence on asthma,
hay fever and other respiratory disorders caused by various allergens, pollens and pollutants,
spending a holiday in such places and taking part in above mentioned programs could result in
enhanced work efficiency and help to prevent illnesses. In the past the sites for the health resorts were
chosen based on the empirical data from the areas that indicated a therapeutic influence of the
climate.
The large year to year fluctuations of the primary climatic elements often make it difficult to discern
slowly varying climate signals such as long term trends. Glaciers are sensitive to changes in external
climatic conditions. Glaciers react with some delay to climatic variations on annual or secular time
scale and exhibit a favourable signal to noise ratio for the observation of slowly varying climate
signals. Analysis indicate major reduction of glacier area in the Alps. The climate change could
jeopardize several human activities and ecosystems in the Alpine region and requires special attention
and measures to be undertaken to assure the less stressful adaptation policy.
The topographic factors influence the nature of the Alpine response to global change and indeed
suggest that the potential for complex and significant climate variations is enhanced in this region. The
resulting impact could be substantial since the population distribution, the broad range of ecosystems,
agricultural activities and tourism are all shaped by the physical topography and climate of the region.
Interdisciplinary approach add value compared to a single disciplinary oriented assessment, it
provides useful information to decision makers.
For preserving the vulnerable ecosystem of the Alps exhaustive information about climate is
necessary. No major planing and environmental change should take place before an analysis of the
potential impacts on the environment has been done. One of the strategies for preserving the
environment could be also the promoting the use of renewable energy like wind and solar energy in
order to reduce air pollution. The problem of transalpine freight traffic, the problem of energy efficient
individual transport using lightweight vehicles should be of primary concern to the decision makers in
the next future. This relate to economic restructuring, environmental policy, climate change and its
possible impacts on human well being and activities.
Climotherapy and health tourism
Thalassotherapy (sea water and ocean climates for health purposes)
THALASSOTHERAPEUTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TURKISH COASTAL AREAS OF
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Mine Karagülle, Serdar Bahadır, M. Zeki Karagülle
Istanbul Medical Faculty, Turkey
Aim; The use of thalassotherapy dates back to ancient times in Asia Minor. However, the
specific climatic conditions of the coastal areas of Turkey as thalassotherapeutic factors were
not well studied. We tried to define the climatic characteristics of the Turkish coast of
Mediterranean Sea and aimed to evaluate the possible climatotherapeutic use of these
factors.
Method; We obtained the meteorological data, which was recorded at the observation
stations on the coast of Mediterranean Sea by Turkish State Meteorological Service. From
these data, we calculated mean daily equivalent temperature (MDET) values in the months
of May to October. We noted mean daily seawater surface temperature (MDST) and the
mean sunshine duration (MDS) (hour: minute/day). We also analysed the chemical
composition and the salinity of the Mediterranean Sea water during the observed period
Results; The MDET values were in hot (49-56ºC) and sultry (>56ºC) limits during the months
June to September and in comfortable (38-49ºC) limits in May and October. MDST values
were above 21ºC during the whole study period (min. 21ºC in May, max. 27.1ºC in August).
MDS values were between 8:00/day (October) and 11:30/day (June). Salinity of the seawater
of Mediterranean Sea was %0. 35-39 and the levels of main ions of the seawater stayed
constant.
Conclusions; The climatic characteristics along the Turkish coastal area of Mediterranean
Sea between May and October provide proper thalassotherapeutic factors. The beneficial
effects of solar radiation are available during all daytime. The degree of salinity and the
temperature of seawater are suitable for natural sea bathing. Patients with some
dermatological conditions such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis, whose thermoregulatory
mechanisms are intact, might benefit from a cure in a thalassotherapy center on
Mediterranean Coast of Turkey.
Climate change and its effects on tourism and recreation
Climate Change: The Implications for Global Tourism
David Viner and Maureen Agnew, UEA
The implications of climate change on tourism markets and demand During the 20th Century,
global temperatures rose by over 0.5°C and the most recent experiments suggest that they
will continue to rise at a rate of 0.2-0.3°C per decade during the course of the 21st Century.
For the tourism industry, which is heavily dependent on present climatic and environmental
conditions, this increasing trend towards warmer temperatures could have major
consequences. Many international holiday destinations have ecosystems, which are a major
tourist asset yet are potentially vulnerable to climate change. We review the possible
impacts of climate change for ten international tourist destinations. The climate impacts are
extremely wide ranging. The most serious impact is likely to be the submergence of some
low-lying resort islands due to accelerated sea-level rise. Other impacts affecting tourism are
likely to include: coral bleaching, beach erosion, outbreaks of forest fire, loss of biodiversity,
changed migration patterns of animals and birds, increased risk of flooding, the spread of
vector-borne diseases (such as malaria), a greater threat of skin cancer, a greater risk of
respiratory problems resulting from photochemical smogs, a higher incidence of heat-stress,
shorter skiing seasons with less snow in low-elevation sites. Without appropriate adaptive
measures, climate change could result in a change in the comparative attractiveness of
tourist destinations around the globe.
ASSESSING THE SENSITIVITY OF THE ALPINE SKIING INDUSTRY IN ONTARIO,
CANADA TO CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE,
Daniel Scott 1, Geoff McBoyle 2, Brian Mills 1, Geoff Wall 2
1 – Adaptation and Impacts Research Group, Environment Canada, at the Faculty of
Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario,Canada, N2L 3G1
2- Department of Geography, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, N2L 3G1
The sensitivity of individual recreation industries and the tourism sector to climate variability has not
been adequately assessed; consequently, our understanding of how climate change might impact the
tourism sector remains limited. This study is one component of an integrated assessment of the
impacts of projected climate change on winter tourism in the Lakeland Tourism Region of southcentral Ontario, Canada. The historical sensitivity of five alpine ski resorts and the potential impacts of
climate change (2020s, 2050s and 2080s) were examined. The validity of climatic thresholds in the
literature (e.g., minimum temperature and snow depth needed for a suitable ski day) was examined by
comparing modelled ski season length with observed ski season length (as determined by daily ski
condition reports). The calibrated thresholds were then used to simulate the length of the ski season
under climate change conditions. Climate change scenarios were developed by temporally
downscaling climate variables from the CGCM1 and HadCM3 general circulation models with the
LARS weather generator (parameterized to local climate stations) for input into a daily snow cover
simulation model.
The increased development of snowmaking as an adaptation to climate variability throughout the
1980s and 1990s was found to have reduced the vulnerability of the ski industry. Under climate
change scenarios, the average ski season was reduced by 25-39% in the 2020s, 37-57% in the 2050s
and 60-70% in the 2080s. In contrast, the number of potential snowmaking days in the region was
projected to decline by only 14-23% in the 2050s, with very little impact in the critical pre-Christmas
holiday period. The findings raise interesting questions regarding the ability of alpine ski resorts to
remain operational under climate change conditions through more intensive snowmaking. Preliminary
modelling suggests ski resorts could remain operational in a warmer climate, but that the threshold for
economical snowmaking costs may be surpassed.
USING A MODIFIED ‘TOURISM CLIMATE INDEX’ TO EXAMINE THE IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE
CHANGE FOR CLIMATE AS A NATURAL RESOURCE FOR TOURISM,
Daniel Scott 1 and Geoff McBoyle 2
1 – Adaptation and Impacts Research Group, Environment Canada, at the Faculty of
Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, N2L 3G1
2- Department of Geography, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, N2L 3G1
Climate has a strong influence on the tourism and recreation sector and in some regions
represents the resource on which the tourism industry is predicated. A variety of tourism
related climate indices have been used in the literature to evaluate climate as a natural
resource for tourism. Though not designed for climate change research, these indices
represent potentially useful tools for exploring the impact of climate change on the climate
resource and the resultant changes in competitive relationships between tourism
destinations. Using a modified version of Mieczkowski’s (1985) ‘tourism climate index’, this
study provides a quantitative measure of how the climate resource would change in a sample
of tourism destinations in North America and the Caribbean for the 2020s, 2050s, 2080s
using two climate change scenarios (CGCM1 and HadCM3). As one of the first empirical
assessments of the implications of climate change for the tourism climate resource, this
investigation raised interesting methodological questions. The paper will discuss these
methodological challenges and how projected climate change may influence North American
tourism.
TOURISM IN THE LAND OF THE OZONE HOLE: A PERCEPTION STUDY, L. Michael
Trapasso, Department of Geography and Geology, Western Kentucky University, USA
The Ozone Hole has been perceived as anything from „a serious threat to human existence“,
to a „scare tactic by fantasists“. Like with other environmental issues, this is a matter of
perception. Regardless of the scientific facts, people perceive what they will. The perception
of an issue is reality to those who take that view. People in various regions of Argentina and
the Antarctic Peninsula were interviewed to gather perspectives within the „Land of the
Ozone Hole“. Several viewpoints are included in this study: a scientific perception, a
government perception, a mass media perception, and a perception of tourists. It was
discovered that each perception differed, at least somewhat, from the others. With respect to
tourism, the perceptions of the Ozone Hole rendered a variety of perceptions. Tourism
professionals were more concerned than tourists themselves, insisting the threat of
increased UV radiation has worsened through time were. The tourist’s perceptions were
divided between the apparently nonchalant attitude of Argentine tourists, and the more
serious attitudes of foreign visitors. During the trip to the Antarctic Peninsula, passengers
were interviewed and a range of perspectives was offered.