3. Means of form-building in modern English.
The grammatical meaning finds its expression in a grammatical form which is a means of expressing a grammatical meaning. There are several types of form-building in English. The main
subdivision of form-building types is into synthetic and analytical. In a synthetic type a grammatical meaning is expressed within a word, in an analytical type a grammatical meaning is expressed
with the help of auxiliary words (plus suffixes). The synthetic types of form-building in English include affixation :suffixes –s,-ed, -ing, -er, -est, -en, -ren, -ne, -m (reads, shown, books, oxen, taken, mine ,them etc.),
sound interchange/ morpho-phonemic alteration – a meaningful change of vowels or consonants within a morpheme (take - took, shine - shone) and suppletivity – the extreme case of morphophon.
alteration, there happens a complete phon. change of the root, is not productive (go - went, be -was, good - better – best, I-me, we-us, she-her) .The only productive type in the present-day English is
affixation, but the other two types are no less important, if only because they occur in words which are most frequently used. The analytical type of form-building occupies a very important place
in the grammatical structure of English as the language has evolutionized from being mainly synthetical to becoming more and more analytical, and analytical tendencies in the present day
English are very strong. There exist the so-called half-analytical structures and the analytical tendencies find their reflection in many spheres of the language.
Presents a specific linguistic reflection of quantitative relations between homogeneous objects of reality conceptualized by the human mind. It is constituted by the binary opposition of singular
and plural forms. The formal marker of the opposition is represented by several phonetically and historically conditioned allomorphs, such as [-z] (boys), [-s] (cats), [-iz] (classes), [0] (, sheep), [-en]
(oxen), [ ae ] (antennae), [ ai] (radii) etc. There are quite a few doublets among the plural forms which differ either lexically (a penny - pennies (coins), pence ( a sum of money)
Semantically the forms of the plural are not homogeneous either. The paradigmatic meaning of plurality is represented by a number of syntagmatic variants, such as: discrete plurality (books,
houses), indiscrete plurality (hours, miles), partitive plurality (spectacles), variety plurality (wines, cheeses, fruits,), space plurality (snows, sands, waters), family, or clan plurality {the Browns,
the Smiths).
From the point of view of their number characteristics the English nouns fall into two classes: countable and uncountable. This feature of the noun determines its choice of the article, the quantitative
pronoun and the form of the predicate (singular or plural). Uncountable nouns are further subdivided into two groups: Singularia Tantum and Pluralia Tantum. The group of Singularia Tantum
includes:.1. names of abstract notions (love, friendship etc.); 2. names of mass materials ( bread, butter, sugar etc.); 3. names of some collective inanimate objects (foliage, machinery etc.); 4. names of sciences
and professional activities ( medicine, architecture etc.); 5. nouns of heterogeneous semantics. This is a limited group and includes such nouns as: hair, advice; knowledge, money, information, news. The first
four groups of nouns of Singularia Tantum denote concepts which are incompatible (несовместим.) with the idea of countability.
Singularia Tantum nouns, when used in the plural form, always acquire additional meanings. Tax moneys means considerable sums o.f money coming from various taxes (this explanation was
suggested by an English speaker who used this noun in the plural).
The group of Pluralia Tantum nouns includes: 1. nouns denoting objects consisting of two parts ( trousers, spectacles etc.); 2. nouns denoting results of repeated processes (savings, labours, belongings etc.); 3. nouns of
multitude (police, gentry, poultry, cattle);4. nouns of various semantics ( oats, outskirts, clothes etc.).
9. The subject matter of theoretical grammar. The grammatical structure of the language.
Language - is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse. Language incorporates 3 constituent parts which
form a unity.

Phonological

Lexical

Grammatical systems
The grammatical system is studied by Grammar.
Grammar- is the structure of the language. All lang-s have grammar. Theoretical grammar is the science of the structure of the lang. It’s a part of the ling. theory & exists for those lang-s
that have been theoretically investigated. Parts of grammar: morphology, syntax, phonology, semantics. 2 main aims of the course: 1) to provide a description of the gram. structure of the
lang. as an organized system.2) to look analytically at the unit making a gram. struct. of English; to provide a critical review of the existing scientific theories. The grammatical system of a
language helps arrange lexical units into coherent utterance (членораздельное высказывание): it expresses a certain complete thought and is marked at all the lingual levels: phonetic,
lexical, the level of combinability, grammatical level. In speech words are connected into utterances, that are built up sent-s. Means that form gram. structure: 1) word-change (I see/saw a
book). 2) word-order (The dog beat the man./The man beat the dog.) 3) functional words: prepositions, articles, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions (He lives in/outside London.) 4) intonation
(They are students. They are students?really?) In one sent. all the 4 means, or 2 or 3 may be used.
The main unit of the grammatical system is the grammatical category. The grammatical category is an opposition of at least two forms of one and the same lexical unit based on a
certain general meaning which is more abstract than the meaning of the members of the opposition. It’s the unity of form & mean-g.
The grammatical form is the lexical nucleus + a grammatical marker. Sometimes they are referred to as word forms (словоформы) The grammatical meaning is that which
distinguishes one member of a paradigm from another. Gram meaning (GM) is a general abstract meaning which unites classes of forms or words and finds its expression through
formal markers thus placing a linguistic unit in a grammatical category or a grammatical class of words (a part of speech). Grammatical meanings are more general and abstract whereas
lexical meanings are usually more concrete and specific. The typological analysis of grammatical meanings reveals that they reflect not the fragments of reality but rather the structure of
such fragments. Being limited in their number grammatical meanings have a regular and an obligatory character in the language. We cannot use a notional word without expressing its grammatical
meaning/meanings. For example, when we say: It has been raining for hours, the verb rain expresses one lexical meaning and seven grammatical meanings (person, number, tense, aspect, time correlation,
voice, and mood).
The grammatical meaning finds its expression in a grammatical form which is a means of expressing a grammatical meaning. Difference between w-form and the word: w-form may be
equal to the word but at any rate it presents an isolated unit. It’s never part of a wd. W-forms- we abstract ourselves from lex.mean-g of the corresp. wd. We concentrate on the gram. mean-g it caries.
Ex. speaks (it shows the 3d person singular- never interested in the fact that it’s the verb of saying). Unlike a wd, the w-form is not independent , it’s always bound as a member of a corresponding set of
forms, such as set of f. usually form a paradigm. There are several types of form-building in English. The main subdivision of form-building types is into synthetical and analytical. In a synthetical type a
grammatical meaning is expressed within a word, in an analytical type a grammatical meaning is expressed with the help of auxiliary words (plus suffixes). The synthetical types of form-building in
English include affixation (reads, shown, books, theirs etc.), sound interchange (take - took, shine - shone) and suppletivity (go - went, be -was, good - better - best}. .The only productive type in the presentday English is affixation, but the other two types are no less important, if only because they occur in words which are most frequently used. The analytical type of form-building occupies a very
important place in the grammatical structure of English as the language has evolutionized from being mainly synthetical to becoming more and more analytical, and analytical tendencies in
the present day English are very strong. There exist the so-called half-analytical structures and the analytical tendencies find their reflection in many spheres of the language.
Main units of Grammar are a word and a sentence. A word may be divided into morphemes, a sentence may be divided into phrases (word-groups). A
morpheme, a word, a phrase and a sentence are units of different levels of language structure. A unit of a higher level consists of one or more units of a lower level.
Grammatical units enter into two types of relations: in the language system (paradigmatic relations) and in speech (syntagmatic relations).
In the language system each unit is included into a set of connections based on different properties. For example, word forms child, children, child's,
children's have the same lexical meaning and have different grammatical meanings. They constitute a lexeme.
Word-forms children, boys, men, books... have the same grammatical meaning and have different lexical meanings. They constitute a grammeme (a
categorial form, a form class).
The system of all grammemes (grammatical forms) of all lexemes (words) of a given class constitutes a paradigm.
Syntagmatic relations are the relations in an utterance:
I like children.
Main grammatical units, a word and a sentence, are studied by different sections of Grammar: Morphology (Accidence) and Syntax. Morphology
studies the structure, forms and the classification of words. Syntax studies the structure, forms and the classification of sentences. In other words, Morphology
studies paradigmatic relations of words, Syntax studies syntagmatic relations of words and paradigmatic relations of sentences.
There is also a new approach to the division of Grammar into Morphology and Syntax. According to this approach Morphology should study both
paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of words. Syntax should study both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of sentences.
Syntactic syntagmatics is a relatively new field of study, reflecting the functional approach to language, i.e. the description of connected speech, or
discourse.
Another approach to the analysis of language as a kind of system, language can be looked upon as a hierarchy of levels: Level of text, it's the main linguistic unit. Phrasemic level
(Phrases are word combinations, they nominate complex phenomena) Leximic level (Words are nominative units, because they nominate things and phenomena. They are built up by
morphemes.)Morphemic level (Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units built up by phonemes or one phoneme.) Phonemic level (Phonemes are meaningless units, their function is
differential.) 2 levels are central: words level and sentence level. They are studied by morphology and syntax. Thus, morphology deals with morphemic structure and combinability,
classification of words. Syntax - with sentences.
12. Text grammar as part of linguistics. Basic units.
Text grammar is a rather new branch of linguistics. It deals with the text. It considers the text the highest unit of speech. If we consider isolated sentences in a discourse, we find that it’s
very rare that one sentence expresses the complete idea, which is clear without any context.
Text is an ordered sequence of sentences combined of various types of logical, lexical and grammatical cohesion conveying structurally organized info. Text is a product of oral and
written speech. Galperin recognizes the existence only of written text.
Those who studied the text as a unit came to the conclusion that a text as a linguistic unit has its own semantic and structural categories:
The main semantic categories:
Information(Any text should carry complete information; it should express a certain communication.)
Profundity(the text should have some depth, some food for thinking, some idea, which may either be expressed, or may be understood implicitly)
Presupposition(there should be some level at which communicate otherwise there may be complete misunderstanding.)
Completeness(The text should be complete in meaning, it shouldn’t be abrupt)
Structural Cathegories:
1)
Integration (целостность)
use certain logical connections and connectors, a certain composition, a certain word order.
2)
Cohesion (связь)
necessary property of any text which differentiates it from disconnected utterances. There are various means of text cohesion (когезия): syntactic, semantic, stylistic.
BLOCH: gram.connectives. 1) Conjunction-like connectives – coordinative, subordinative conjunctions and adverbial and parenthetical sentence connectors such as: yet,
then, however, moreover. 2) Substitutional connection – use of substitutes: pronouns.
3)
Retrospection & Prospection
(means of text cohesion). Retrospection refers the reader to the preceding events, prospection – to the following events
4)
Continuum
the text should continue without breaking, it shouldn’t be abrupt. Deictic (связующие) elements, tense forms, number forms, mood forms
5) Polyphony
- a good text usually has more than one line of thinking, of reasoning, which is most of all important for fiction
The main task of morphology is the study of the structure of words. The sinallesl significant (meaningful) units of grammar are called morghemes.
Morphemes are commonly classified into free (those which can occur as separate words) and bound. A word consisting of a single (free) morpheme is
monomorphemic, its opposite is polymorphemic.
According to their meaning and, function morphemfes are subdivided into lexical (roots), lexico-grammatical (word-building affixes ) and
grammatical (form-building affexes, or inflexions)
Morphemes are abstract units, respresented in speech by morphs. Most morphemes are realized by single morphs: un-self-ish. Some morphemes may
be manifested by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs, or positional variants of a morpheme are called allomorphs: cats, [s],
dog's [z], foxes [iz], oxen.
Morphemic variants are identified in the text on the basis of their co-occurence with other morphs, or their environment. The total of environments
constitutes the distribution.
There may be three types of morphemic distribution: contrastive, non-contrastiye, conplementary Morphs are in coutrastive distribution if their
position is the same and their meanings are different: charming — charmed. Morphs are in non-contrastive distribution if their position is the same and their
meanings are the same: learned — learnt. Such morphs constitute free variants of the same morpheme. Morphs are in complementary distribution if their positions
are different and their meanings are the same: speaks. -teaches. Such morphs are allomorphs of the same morpheme.
Grammatical meanings may be expressed by the absence of the morpheme. Compare: book — books. The meaning of plurality is expressed by the
morpheme -s. The meaning of singularity is expressed by the absence of the morpheme. Such meaningful absence of the morpheme is called zero-morpheme.
The function of the morpheme may be performed by a separate word. In the opposition work - will work the meaning of the future is expressed by the
word will. Will is a contradictory unit. Formally it is a word, functionally it is a morpheme. As it has the features of a word and a morpheme, it is called a word
morpheme. Word-morphemes may be called semi-bound morphemes.