Anatomy & Physiology 34A Lecture Exam 2 Study Guide
In preparation for exam #2, study your lecture notes and related textbook materials. The
following are examples of topics you should be familiar with.
Heredity
- Know the structure of DNA and how and when it replicates. What is the end result of DNA
replication?
- Know how DNA directs protein synthesis and the structure and functions of rRNA, mRNA,
and tRNA in protein synthesis.
- Know the enzymes involved in both DNA replication and protein synthesis.
- Know the difference between transcription and translation and how and where each occurs.
- How and where is mRNA modified after it is synthesized?
- Do the cells in a person’s body all contain identical DNA molecules? If so, why do different
cell types have different proteins?
- What is a gene mutation? How can it affect the protein the gene codes for?
- What are mutagens and carcinogens? How do they affect gametes and somatic body cells?
- What are two major types of genes involved in the development of cancer? What’s the
difference between benign tumors and malignant tumors?
- Describe the cell cycle, including interphase, mitosis, and meiosis.
- What is meant by heredity? What’s a karyotype? Autosomes? Sex Chromosomes?
- How are alleles related to genes? What’s the difference between dominant and recessive
alleles? What do homozygous dominant, heterozygous, and homozygous recessive mean?
- Differentiate between genotype and phenotype.
- How are Punnett squares used to determine probabilities of genotypes and phenotypes in simple
genetic crosses?
- In a monohybrid cross with complete dominance, what is the percent of probability that the
offspring will have the dominant trait? The recessive trait?
- Compare and contrast complete dominance, multiple alleles, codominance, and incomplete
dominance.
- What is meant by polygenic inheritance? What traits are polygenic?
- What are sex-linked traits? Which gender inherits X-linked traits more often?
- How do environmental influences affect an individual’s genetic inheritance?
- Describe how pedigrees and blood tests may be used to identify carriers of harmful genes.
- What two fetal testing procedures are used to determine if a fetus has genetic abnormalities?
Tissues
- What is a tissue? What do we call the study of tissues? What is an organ?
- What are the 4 primary tissue types? (Hint: CMEN) What are the main functions of each?
Where in general are each found in the body?
- What are the 3 embryonic germ layers? What does each layer become in the body? What is
differentiation?
- What are the 2 main types of epithelial tissues? Where is each found?
- What are the common features of epithelial tissues? What are their major functions?
- What are two criteria for epithelial tissue classification? What is meant by simple, stratified,
and pseudostratified? By squamous, cuboidal, columnar, and transitional?
- Describe each type of epithelial tissue, where each one is found, and the functions of each.
- What are microscopic extensions of an epithelial cell’s plasma membrane? Why do some
epithelial cells have these structures? Where are cells like these found?
- What are short microtubular extensions out of the apical surface of some epithelial cells? Why
do some cells have these structures? Where are cells with these structures found?
- What is meant by keratinized? Where are keratinized cells found, vs. nonkeratinized cells?
- What is the purpose of stratification? What general areas do we find stratified tissues? What
areas do we find simple tissues in general?
- What is glandular epithelium? What are the two main types of glands in the body? How are
they similar? How do they differ?
- What are unicellular glands? What is a goblet cell? In what types of tissues, membranes and
areas of the body do we find goblet cells?
- What are multicellular glands? Know the different types of multicellular glands and where
they are found, as mentioned in lecture.
- What are the key characteristics and functions of connective tissues?
- Why do epithelial tissues need to be grounded in connective tissues?
- Compare and contrast epithelial tissues vs. connective tissues.
- What types of cells are found in CT? What is the extracellular matrix composed of? What cell
type creates the ECM?
- What are the 5 main classes of CT? From what class are all other CTs derived?
- Name the 6 types of connective tissue proper, where each is found, and their functions.
- List the 3 types of cartilages, where each is found, and their functions.
- Describe the internal structures of compact bone, as well as their functions.
- What are the main components of blood? What are the general functions of each of the 3 types
of formed elements?
- Name the 3 types of membranes, where each is found, and their functions.
- What are the 2 main cell types in nervous tissues? Name the three parts of a neuron, and their
functions.
- What are the three types of muscle tissues? How are they similar? How do they differ? Where
is each found in the body?
- Know the terms for the various types of tissue changes, growth, and death.
- How does tissue repair occur? How do regeneration and fibrosis differ? What are the stages in
healing a cut?
The Integumentary System
- What are the major components of the integumentary system?
- What are the two main layers of the skin? What is the deeper layer that connects the skin to the
underlying muscles?
- Of what major tissue type and cell type is the epidermis composed? Name the 5 sub-layers of
the epidermis, their composition, and their functions.
- What cell types are found in the epidermis? What are their functions? Where does most of the
mitosis occur?
- What are the 2 sub-layers of the dermis? What tissues compose each layer? What specialized
structures are found in each layer?
- Name 3 types of sensory structures in the skin, their locations, and their functions.
- What are some other names for the hypodermis? Of what tissue types is it composed? Where
is it located? What is its main function?
- What 3 pigments contribute to skin color? What are the main abnormal skin colors that often
indicate some health problems? Know the health problems they can indicate.
- What are the major functions of the skin? How does the skin protect us? How does it help to
maintain bodily homeostasis? What products does it manufacture?
- What are the appendages of the skin? From what major skin layer do all appendages originate?
- What are the structures associated with hair?
- What are the structures of the nails?
- What are the 3 basic types of exocrine glands associated with the skin? Know where each is
located, what they secrete, their methods of secretion, and the functions of their secretions.
- What is dermatitis? What are its causes?
- What are neoplasms? What’s the difference between benign and malignant neoplasms? What
are cancers of the epithelial, connective and muscle, and blood forming tissues called?
- What are the 3 major types of skin cancers we studied? Know where they arise from, what
their characteristics are, what the 5 warning signs are, and how they are treated.
- Know what is meant by 1st, 2nd, and 3rd degree burns, their effects on the body, examples of
each, and how they are treated. What is the “rule of nines?”
- What happens to skin as we age? What are the effects of UV radiation on the skin?