PSYC 112 Lecture Notes on School, Work, Media
[Main sources of information for these lecture notes:
1.Arnett, J.J. (2013). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach. Prentice-Hall.
2.Kimmel, D.C. & Weiner, I.B. (1995). Adolescence: A developmental transition. Wiley.
3. Selected articles on school effects, media effects]
The Changing Environment of the Adolescent (School, Work, and Media Overview)
Selected Highlight and Summary Points
I. SCHOOL LIFE (Chapter 10 lecture notes) [Main information sources: Kimmel & Weiner;
Arnett; Eccles]
A. “Manifest” & “Latent” Functions of School
Schools have both explicit (also called “Manifest”) and implicit (also called “Latent”)
functions. Explicit functions are intended purposes, while implicit functions are often not
intended but still occur.
Examples of the explicit function of schools during adolescence is to provide an education and
help prepare us for more education through college and/or work life with the goal to help us
more fully participate in society.
Most of what we focus on about the effect of schools on youth emphasizes the Manifest or
explicit goals, but implicit or Latent functions that are not intended are still important to keep in
mind. An example of an implicit function of schools is the potential of schools to enhance social
skills and the ability to relate to others.
B. Secondary Schools in the U.S. & Suggestions for Further Improvement
Secondary schools generally refer to schooling after elementary (primary) school. During
adolescence, secondary schools typically include middle-school (usually grades 6-8) or junior
high (usually grades 7-9) and then high school.
In a study of U.S. high schools by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching,
educators provided several recommendations for ways to further improve the public high school
experience. Here is a short list of some of the recommendations:
1- Offer a single track for all students that includes a strong foundation in the basic tools of
education.
2- Expand course requirements. Strengthen “traditional” courses in literature, history,
math, and science. Add more on foreign language, the arts, non-Western studies,
technology, the meaning of work, and the importance of health.
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3- Form partnerships between high schools and colleges to smoothen the transition for
those who plan to pursue college and to strengthen the high school overall. Similarly,
form partnerships between high schools and businesses (e.g., apprenticeship
experiences).
C. The Transition from Primary to Secondary Schools
The secondary school experience is sometimes divided in different ways. For example, our text
refers to different “plans” such as the “6-3-3” plan, the “5-3-4” plan, and the “8-4” plan. There
are other “plans” but these are some common ones. The plans refer to the transitions that occur
from one school setting to another. For example, the “6-3-3 plan” would mean that someone
would attend a school that offers grades 1-6, then attend a school that offers grades 7-9 and
finally attend a school that offers grades 10-12.
1. The transition from Elementary- to Junior High/Middle-School:
Because it coincides with the beginning of adolescence, our text gives some special
consideration to the transition from elementary school to junior high/middle school.
Our text highlights some key differences in the school setting between the average elementary
school and the average junior high/middle school. For example, elementary schools tend to have
smaller total number of students and fewer people in one’s classroom – therefore, there is often
less competition with regard to school performance or sports participation.
Our text points out that compared to elementary (primary) schools, JUNIOR HIGH/MIDDLE
SCHOOL is often characterized by such things as:
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Multiple teachers
Larger and less personalized school setting
Higher level of academic work
Some students experience a certain amount of difficulty as they make the transition to the junior
high/middle school. Researchers have tried to understand the reasons for such difficulties. For
example, they have asked whether the difficulty is because: (1) any transition is difficult in-andof-itself, 2) this particular school transition is difficult since it coincides with other transitions
such as puberty and so extra adjustment to multiple changes is needed, and (3) the actual
difference in the environment or setting of the elementary school as compared to junior
high/middle school is the problem.
A study discussed in the text by Roberta Simmons and Dale Blyth was interested in looking
at the general nature of transitions (e.g., timing of the transition and overall number of
transitions). They compared students in an 8-4 plan with those in a 6-3-3 plan. They found that
the 8-4 plan seemed to be better for self-esteem, greater involvement in extracurricular
activities, and reducing a sense of personal anonymity. They also reported that student GPA was
NOT significantly different across the two plans.
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Another researcher, Jacqueline Eccles, believes that the transition is difficult for some students
because of the nature of the typical junior high school environment. She has identified what she
calls certain “school environment variables” that she believes help to explain why some students
have difficulty with the transition to junior high:
(1) Junior high classes involve more situations where one can compare one’s performance
with others which can lead to a decline in motivation for all but the best students.
(2) Junior high teachers use higher standards for judging students’ performance, which can
lead to a decline in grades.
(3) There is greater emphasis on control and discipline, less personal relationship between
teacher and student in junior high compared to elementary school.
Interestingly, Eccles reported that 7th grade teachers (compared to 6th grade teachers): (a)
believed their students needed more discipline and control, (b) rated the students as less
trustworthy, and (c) felt less able to influence the learning of all their students.
Overall, Eccles believes that the transition from elementary to junior high is from a relatively
positive environment to a less positive one. She believes that when students enter junior high,
they often are moving into what she calls a “developmentally regressive” environment in
which they experience less (rather than more) opportunities for autonomy and self-control as
compared to what they had been experiencing toward the end of their elementary school years.
Eccles work relates to the concept discussed in the text called, school climate which refers to the
quality of interactions of teachers and students.
II. ADOLESCENTS WHO WORK (Overview) (Chapter 11 lecture notes) [Main
information source: Arnett]
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When concerns are raised about the role of work during adolescence, it is not surprising
that it centers on potential impact on school.
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Some experts suggest that when we help make connections between what is learned at
work and what is learned at school, it is more likely to promote a positive work
experience for those adolescents who work. For example, supervised work in a setting
related to school can be an effective link between the classroom and one’s future goals.
Moreover, when students have opportunities to gain greater understanding of what it
means to work through group discussion of the work experience during school time it can
help them in developing positive work attitudes.
1. The research of Jeylan Mortimer discussed in our textbook
Mortimer makes a case that favors adolescent work, although her research also shows certain
problems with adolescent work.
Overall, Mortimer believes that work has clear benefits (e.g., builds responsibility, money
management skills).
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Mortimer also agrees that work at this time can result in less time for homework, but she says
that working mostly reduces time spent watching TV. She explains that, unfortunately, U.S.
teens spend little time doing homework and so working has little additional impact on time spent
on homework.
Our textbook author (Jeffrey Arnett) disagrees with Mortimer. The disagreement centers on
hours of work. He believes that there is a pretty good case against working over 20 hours a week
or even over 10 hours a week.
We learned in the text that for adolescents – working over 10 hours a week can affect: sleep
patterns, as well as eating and exercise habits.
Also, Arnett says that Mortimer’s own data as well as other studies find relationships between
working long hours and poor grades.
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At present, the best conclusion seems to be that number of hours of work per week during
the school year should be limited so that we can reduce the risk of any negative effects on
adolescents.
The effect of working on adolescents is not completely clear. Most studies have focused
on adolescents who work for additional income and few studies have examined working
to help support family or to gain work experience.
III. MEDIA USE AND MESSAGES (Overview) (Chapter 12 lecture notes) [Main
information sources: Arnett; Kimmel & Weiner; Lull; Larson, et al.]
The “Uses and Gratifications” approach suggests that (a) we make active choices about the
media we use, and (b) individual characteristics of a person will partly affect how someone
responds to media information.
Our text identifies 5 uses of media by adolescents: entertainment, identity formation, high
sensation, coping, and youth culture identification. It is interesting that all uses except
“entertainment” have developmental implications for adolescents and emerging adults.
While media in general has some interesting implications for our understanding of adolescence,
many believe that popular music is a noteworthy medium deserving further study in
developmental psychology.
Music is often seen as part of one’s “peer-group” life. Also, subcultures are sometimes organized
around music preferences.
For example, the author of our textbook (Jeffrey Arnett) has conducted studies on the subculture
of youth with a preference for Heavy Metal music. He states that the usual Heavy Metal fan is a
White male between ages 14-20. Many of the listeners of Heavy Metal describe themselves as
having strong negative feelings toward school and the “regimented structure” of school. Arnett
suggested that youth who like Heavy Metal music were coping with a “pervasive state of
alienation”. Furthermore, Arnett suggests a possible “cathartic effect” (purging out) for some
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youth because many of the participants in his study reported that they listen to heavy metal music
especially when they feel angry and that it helps them release their anger. However, whether it
actually promotes a “cathartic effect” is not clear. The catharsis issue is complex and
controversial. In other words, it may be hard to say if such music helps to release anger
(catharsis) or increase angry feelings.
As Arnett concludes, we should not rule out the chance that certain forms of music “could act as
an inspiration to commit acts of violence or suicide.” – His conclusion further emphasizes the
relevance of the “uses and gratifications” approach as a way to understand the effect of media
because it illustrates how people use the same media product but will respond to it in different
ways depending on their individual characteristics.
For example, other research has found that listening to sad or unhappy lyrics in music can
intensify (rather than purge) lonely feelings for some individuals.
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