CHAPTER 7 – THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE
MODULE 7.1 THINKING
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Define cognitive psychology
 Define thinking
 Describe the major types of concepts that people use and explain how they are organized
 Discuss how we can solve problems more efficiently
 Explain how cognitive biases influence decision making
 Discuss the cognitive processes that underlie creative thinking
Key Terms and Concepts:
Cognitive Psychology
Thinking
Mental Image
Concepts
Logical Concepts
Natural Concepts
Superordinate Concepts
Basic-Level Concepts
Subordinate Concepts
Positive Instance
Negative Instance
Problem Solving
Algorithm
Heuristic
Analogy
incubation Period
Mental Set
Functional Fixedness
Decision-Making
Confirmation Bias
Representativeness Heuristic
Availability Heuristic
Framing
Creativity
Divergent Thinking
Convergent Thinking
Metaphor
Conceptual Combinations
Conceptual Expansion
I.
II.
III.
Cognitive Psychology
A.
How we acquire knowledge about the world
B.
How we think, form concepts, use language, process information, solve problems
C.
Not considered appropriate for study in psychology until 1960s
Thinking
A.
The mental representation and manipulation of information
B.
Solving problems, making decisions, engaging in creativity
Mental Images
A.
We represent information in the mind as images, words, or concepts
B.
Mental image
1.
Mental picture (representation) of an object or event
2.
A reconstruction of the object or event from memory
3.
Uses similar parts of visual cortex as those for actually seeing the object
4.
Advantage is mental representation can be manipulated—allows for many cognitive
tasks
5.
IV.
V.
Gender differences in mental imagery abilities
a.
Women—more vivid imagery; better representations of still objects
b.
Men—greater use in problem solving; better at visualizing moving objects
Concepts
A.
Mental categories used to group objects, events, and ideas
B.
Categorization based upon common features or properties
C.
Types of concepts
1.
Logical concepts—clearly defined rules for membership
2.
Natural concepts
a.
Include objects (such as fruit), activities, and abstractions
b.
Rules for membership understood and applied, but less clear
c.
Membership for category based on probability that item fits
D.
Hierarchies of concepts—ordered from broad to narrow
1.
Superordinate—broadest category (e.g., vehicle, animal, furniture)
2.
Basic-level
a.
Most frequently used concept category
b.
Examples are car (in vehicle category), dog (in animal category), and chair
(in furniture category)
c.
Basic-level concepts probably provide most useful information
3.
Subordinate
a.
Very specific regarding features
b.
Examples are sedan, cocker spaniel, beach chair
4.
Understanding of concepts refined through use
a.
Positive instance—concept is exemplified
b.
Negative instance—experience does not fit concept
Problem Solving
A.
A cognitive process—mental strategies are used to solve problems
B.
Previously discussed methods are insight, trial and error
C.
Useful problem-solving strategies
1.
Algorithms
a.
Step-by-step set of rules for solving a problem
b.
None may apply specifically to given problem
2.
Heuristics
a.
A rule of thumb that aids in problem solving and decision making
b.
Backward-working heuristic—start from solution and see if it fits problem
c.
Means-end heuristic—compare current situation and desired end result;
create steps to connect or resolve difference
d.
Creating subgoals heuristic—divide objective into smaller units and solve each
individually
3.
Analogies
a.
Use and apply knowledge from similar problems solved in the past
b.
Effective unless past and present problems not really very similar
4.
Incubation periods
a.
Take a break from attempting to solve problem
b.
Passage of time may actually help in seeing problem clearly
D.
Mental roadblocks to problem solving
1.
Mental set
a.
Relying on strategies that worked well in previous situations
b.
May lead to quick solution to current problem
c.
Hinders ability to find solution when prior method not effective
2.
Functional fixedness—inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways
3.
Irrelevant information—attending to this distracts from truly relevant factors
E.
Mental roadblocks in decision making
1.
Decision making—problem solving where one course of action is selected from
among alternatives
2.
Examples of decision-making roadblocks:
a.
Confirmation bias—sticking to initial approach despite evidence that does not
support (preference is to confirm existing belief, ignore facts that might
necessitate reconsideration)
b.
c.
VI.
Representativeness heuristic—assuming given sample is like all other cases;
no true basis for believing this is so
Availability heuristic—basing decision on information that most readily comes
to mind
Framing—decisions are made based on how alternatives are described
d.
Creativity
A.
Thinking that leads to original, practical, meaningful solutions
B.
Thinking that generates new ideas or artistic expressions
C.
Everyone has potential for creativity; some show more than others
D.
Creativity associated with higher levels of intelligence
E.
Most intelligent not necessarily more creative; creativity extends beyond intelligence
F.
Measuring creativity
1.
Variety of tests (one is Alternate Uses Test)
2.
Most typically measure divergent thinking (finding new ways to view situations or
objects)
3.
Convergent thinking not considered a measure of creativity (looks at finding the one
“correct” solution only)
G.
Cognitive processes that underlie creative thinking
1.
Metaphor and analogy
a.
Metaphor—one object or concept is seen as like another
b.
Analogy—comparing two things having similar properties
2.
Conceptual combination—uniting two or more concepts into one novel result
3.
Conceptual expansion—extending a familiar concept to novel application
MODULE 7.2 LANGUAGE
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Describe the major components of language
 Explain how language develops
 Discuss the linguistic relativity hypothesis
 Discuss the controversy regarding whether nonhuman animals can use language
Key Terms and Concepts:
Language
Grammar
Phonemes
Morphemes
Syntax
Semantics
Language Acquisition Device
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Language
A.
A system of communication composed of symbols
B.
Symbols are arranged according to a grammar
Grammar—a set of rules governing the proper use of words, phrases, and sentences to express
meaning
Components of Language
A.
Phonemes—basic units of sounds in a language
B.
Morphemes
1.
Formed by combinations of phonemes
2.
Smallest units of meaning in a language
3.
Include simple words (car, ball) but also prefixes and suffixes
C.
Syntax—rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered in a sentence (or phrase)
to form meaningful expressions
D.
Semantics—the set of rules governing the meaning of words
Language Development
A.
Children develop language in the same stages, at the same ages, universally
B.
C.
V.
VI.
Language acquisition in young children usually occurs very easily and naturally
“Language acquisition device”—suggested by Chomsky; human is “prewired” to acquire a
language
D.
Both nature and nurture necessary to learn language
E.
Close relationship between language and thought
Culture and Language
A.
Is the language one speaks related to how one thinks?
B.
Linguistic relativity hypothesis (Whorfian hypothesis)
1.
Proposes that language we use determines how we think
2.
Proposes that language we use determines how we perceive reality
3.
Research (e.g., by Rosch et al., 1972) does not support this notion
4.
Dani tribe just as capable as English-speaking participants at distinguishing colors
5.
There is support for notion that language influences how we think
Is Language Unique to Humans?
A.
Communication is via American Sign Language (ASL) or another artificial language
B.
Simian communication gives evidence of a basic grammar
C.
Debate is whether true “language” or just product of imitation, reinforcement
D.
Ultimate conclusion depends on how “language” defined
E.
Animals do communicate among themselves with vocalizations and facial expression
MODULE 7.3 INTELLIGENCE
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:






Define intelligence, and discuss how it is measured
Explain what constitutes a good intelligence test
Describe some examples of the misuse of intelligence tests
Discuss the major theories of intelligence
Discuss whether intelligence is determined by heredity or environment
Discuss intelligence and the nature-nurture question, and discuss racial/ethnic differences in IQ.
Key Terms and Concepts:
Intelligence
Eugenics
Mental Age
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Norms
Standardization
Reliability
Validity
Predictive Validity
Culture-Fair Tests
Mental Retardation
Mainstreaming
Primary Mental Abilities
Multiple Intelligences
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Heritability
I.
Intelligence
A.
Difficult to define
B.
David Wechsler (1975): “…the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment”
C.
May be multiple intelligences or many different forms of intelligence
D.
Alfred Binet (French)
1.
Commissioned (1904) by school officials in Paris to identify intellectually at-risk
children
2.
Binet and Theodore Simon developed an intelligence test (1905)
3.
4.
II.
III.
IV.
Test items scaled to what typical child of a given age could do
Mental age—age level of work a child could do (derived from Binet and Simon’s
intelligence test)
E.
IQ (Intelligence Quotient—suggested by William Stern, 1912)
F.
Lewis Terman (at Stanford University, USA)
1.
Adapted Binet-Simon test for use in United States
2.
Added many test items
3.
Established norms for comparison of scores
4.
Revised test known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS, 1916)
G.
Most widely used intelligence tests today: created by David Wechsler
1.
Developed for pre-school children, school age children, and adults
2.
Test based on idea that intelligence is a variety of abilities
3.
Score consists of a deviation IQ (how different from norm for that age group)
4.
Test includes verbal and performance subtests
Characteristics of Good Intelligence Tests
A.
Standardization
1.
Establishing norms by administering test to large numbers of people (standardization
sample)
2.
Sample must be representative of population to which it refers
3.
IQ score is based on difference (deviation) from norm
4.
Mean (average score) is 100
5.
2/3 of scores from general population range from 85 to 115
6.
Uniform procedures must be followed when administering test
B.
Reliability—consistency of test scores over time
C.
Validity—when a test measures what it is supposed to test (e.g., a math test does test math
ability not verbal or mechanical ability or ability to follow directions)
D.
Misuses of intelligence tests
1.
Parents and teachers may lose hope for children with low IQ scores
2.
Low expectations can become self-fulfilling prophecies
3.
Children may give up on themselves; accept label
4.
Too much emphasis may be placed on IQ scores—other measures of assessment
should also be considered
5.
Tests may be biased against those not in majority culture
6.
Culture-fair tests have been developed, but not as good predictors of academic
performance
Extremes of Intelligence
A.
Mental retardation
1.
IQ score of 70 or below
2.
Difficulty in coping with age-appropriate tasks and life situations
3.
Causes may be biological, environmental, or both
B.
Mainstreaming—children with mild retardation are placed in regular classrooms
C.
Intellectual giftedness
1.
IQ of 130 or higher (98th percentile)
2.
May benefit from enriched, faster-paced academic programs
3.
Category also includes musical, artistic ability
4.
Research shows persistence, motivation always important
Theories of Intelligence
A.
Spearman’s “g”—idea that there is a general underlying factor (ability in one area often
correlated with ability in other areas)
B.
Thurstone’s primary mental abilities (7): verbal comprehension, numerical ability, memory,
inductive reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal fluency, spatial relations
C.
Gardner’s model of multiple intelligences (8): linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical,
spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist
D.
Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
1.
Bringing together different aspects of our intelligence
2.
Intelligence has three aspects: analytic, creative, and practical
3.
More intelligent individuals integrate these aspects better
E.
Overview
1.
Traditional view is that people vary in “amount” of intelligence they have
2.
V.
VI.
Clear that human intelligence involves multiple abilities, perhaps multiple
intelligences (lack of data in support of latter)
3.
Cultural context is always important (e.g., societies vary in what they value as
intelligence, and what they measure for)
Intelligence and the Nature-Nurture Question
A.
Distinguishing between the influences of each
B.
Closer genetic tie corresponds to closer intellectual similarity (MZ twins more similar than
DZ twins)
C.
Problem with kinship studies—close relatives tend to be raised in similar environments
D.
IQ scores of adopted children closer to that of biological parents
E.
Yet MZ twins raised together have more similar IQ than MZ twins raised apart (thus
environment plays a role here too)
F.
Conclusion is environment and genetics influence together in complex ways
G.
Heritability of a trait—the degree to which genetic factor is a contributor
Exploring Psychology: Racial/Ethnic Differences in IQ
A.
Racial disparity in scores even when income level accounted for
B.
The Bell Curve—proposed a widening gap between people with high and low IQ, with African
Americans and recent immigrants have lower IQ than whites
C.
Early intervention can make a difference (IQ is not fixed at birth)
D.
Individual potential always unique
E.
IQ scores have been rising in recent generations, especially among African Americans
(relative to Euro-Americans)
MODULE 7.4 APPLICATION: BECOMING A CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVER
After you have mastered the information in this unit, you will be able to:
 Outline the keys to becoming a creative problem solver
I.
Keys to Becoming a Creative Problem Solver
A.
Adopt a questioning attitude—be aware of various alternatives and their potential
B.
Gather information—use the many information sources available
C.
Avoid getting stuck in mental sets
1.
Mental sets can impair problem-solving efforts (cannot see real problem)
2.
Examine what the real requirement is of a question or challenge
D.
Generate alternatives
1.
Best to come up with many possible solutions, not just grasp the first one
2.
Try brainstorming
a.
Write down as many solutions to problem as can be come up with
b.
Don’t prejudge your list of solutions
c.
Seek all ideas, no matter how “off the wall”
d.
Let list sit a few days before contemplating
e.
Think of analogies—a prior problem related to what you are facing now
f.
Think “outside the box”
E.
Sleep on it—sleep enhances insight and creative thinking
F.
Test it out
1.
Try out your possible solutions
2.
Let situation “incubate” if necessary
3.
Remember danger of mental set—the tendency to stick with traditional solution