COMMENTS ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL CRITERIA
AND HISTORIC BACKGROUND OF RICE ORIGIN
Zhang Peiqi
Xiantao, Zhongfu, Hubei Province
(Agricultural Archaeology 1998(1):62-69. Translated/interpreted by W. Tsao, Ph.D. 5/2/01. Edited by B. Gordon)
1. Preamble:
(1) There have been many arguments on the timing and location of rice origin but only that supported by
the most convincing evidence will be accepted as closest to the truth. Rice origin is a complicated
question and should be considered from every possible aspect and not based only on single evidence.
The main task for any argument is to be able to face the challenge based on historical materialism.
(2) Archaeology reconciles most Chinese descend from Peking Man, based on collected data on change
from wan qi yuan ren (late anthropoid apes), to zao qi zhi ren (early hominid) and wan qi zhi ren
(late hominid) to the Palaeolithic and Neolithic. No such complete archaeological change exists
anywhere else.
(3) Human evolution and change must meet certain criteria. Like other unique conditions at certain
stages, environment plays an important role in change, and if unfavorable, evolution stops or even
reverts. Wang Xiantang theorized: “Ancient Chinese civilization started in the east, developing via
fishing, hunting and farming stages in accord with the social environment”(1). China’s huge territory,
versatile topography and variable climate provided adequate choices and opportunities for change.
As advanced cultures provide more archaeological remains, ancient Chinese written characters for
people, place, etc., possess representative traits, and like living fossils, archaeological clues.
(4) Archaeological research is based on a combination of artifacts and historic data, the so-called “dualevidence method”. Like a human, artifacts are the skeleton supporting the body, while historic data
is the flesh and blood verifying its identity. Data on social activity at a specific time and place under
a specific historic event identifies it historically, and without it loses its accuracy.
(5) The geographic line from Huai River in the east to Qin Ling Mountain in the west divides China into
a south subtropical zone of the Yangtze basin and a north temperate zone of the Yellow basin.
Although their environments and racial traits differ, culture, language, and written characters remain
identical. The early zhi ren of Peking Man (Pan people) moved south and settled in the Yellow River
basin ca. 100,000 years ago (ancient placenames like Panshan, Pangu, Pouyang, Pohei, Boshan and
Poyang still exist, all originating from Pangu and Panhu, etc.). As >210 Palaeolithic remains occur
in Jigongdang site in Li County, Hunan Province(2), and Tangshan site human skulls in Nanjing are
>100,000 years old(3), the Pan arrived in Jiangnan ca. 100,000 years ago. They crossed the Yangtze,
a dangerous natural boundary, floating on hollow gourds or primitive wood rafts via three possible
routes: a. southbound from Zhongyuan (Henan) to Hu-Guang (Hunan & Guangdong); e.g., 50,000year old zhi ren fossils are in the Zhangyangguo Hotel site in Panhu(4); b. southwest from northwest
Shandong to Cao Lake in Anhui and crossing to Jiangxi. Evidence shows ancient peoples like the
Poyang (Poyang area)(5) and Pangushan (Youdo area) settled in Jiangxi; c. southbound from south
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Shandong via middle Jiangsu to Wu (Suzhou City) in south Jiangsu, or along the coast to Zhejiang
and Fujian Provinces, including Lishui Shenxian cave in south Jiangsu(6), and Hemudo in Zhejiang
and Min River area.
The book “Cultural History of Yan Huang Clan” suggests “as the tribe moved the place name moved
with it, first closeby and then further. The new place may differ but has the same pronunciation,
although its written character may differ. When it varied it can be traced to the same root. Its name
existed only vocally, with a written character created later. With no rigid regulation, this character
may change vocally or in writing according to individual preference. This explanation is true for all
Chinese place names, which serves as a clue in tracing human movement”(7).
(6) Ancient southward movement was unplanned but from struggle, ecological pressure or unacceptance
by the original community. After crossing the Yangtze, migrants had difficulty surviving due to
unfamiliar environment, but by introducing their high level of culture, were gradually accepted by
local southerners and eventually merged, but preserving their original northern culture. In sum, one
must consider the following three points when researching rice origin:
(A) Most Peking Man descendents and Jiangnan culture moved south;
(B) The geographic environment is the background of human evolution and change; and
(C) Archaeological research should be based on the “dual-evidence method” of combined historic and
archaeological data.
2. Three stages of rice origin:
Prof. Liu Ziyi supports three rice origin stages: (1) origin of domesticated and cultivated rice; (2)
origin of rice agriculture (i.e., production); and (3) origin of primitive (rice) agricultural society(8). I
believe likewise, adding sources to these stages: (1) from Xianrendong in Jiangxi to Poyang basin for
rice cultivation origin; (2) from Taohuayuan in Wuling, Hunan, to Pengtoushan site for rice agricultural
origin; and (3) from Hemudu in Zhejiang to Ningshao Plain for (rice) agricultural society origin.
(1) Cultivated rice origin from Xianrendong to Poyang basin. Possibly the earliest rice phytoliths (9) are
in the early Neolithic Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan sites, Wannian, Jiangxi. 625 stone and 318
bone artifacts, 516 potsherds and 20 human bones were taken from Diaotonghuan, a 15,000-20,000year old site ca. 800 m from Xianrendong(10), where Po River people began rice cultivation. “Rice
began as wild rice, then cultivated when primitive agriculture began ca. 10,000 years ago”(11).
Why did rice cultivation begin at Po River?
“The following favorable conditions were unique for the Po people: (a) Po River is in the Yangtze
basin, an environment favorable for rice; (b) many cultivatible wild rice varieties; (c) Xianrendong,
Diaotonghuan and small surrounding streams were ideal; (d) as Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan are
near mountains in the east and Poyang Lake in the west, farmers fished, hunted and gathered if
cultivation failed; and (e) the Po people had previous experience cultivating northern cereal crops.
As no other area had such favorable conditions, Po River is likely the place of rice origin”(12).
Where did the Po people originate and when did they move south?
Po is the Pan people arriving in north Shandong 100,000-200,000 years ago (almost simultaneously
as Peking Yingkou anthropoid apes). They settled in Bo (Pan) Mountain in northwest Shandong, first
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hunting, fishing and gathering from their Boxing and Zibo bases. In fact, the ancient Panyang county
is now Zibo City(13), with Panyang River southeast(14). These incipient cultivators called themselves
the Fan and their place Fandi(15). Based on late Xintaiwuzutai hominid remains(16), the Pangua went
east 50,000 years ago armed with hand axes, forcing some Fan to Jiangxi where they occupied
Xianrendong ca. 30-40,000 years ago. As “rice cultivation was a lengthy accumulation traceable
70,000 years”(17) at Pan River, the Pan likely domesticated it.
Rice was first cultivated in small scattered plots, each family harvesting several hundred jin (catty)
and mixed daily with other food. As the community grew, they were renamed Shui and their place
Poyang or Po River. People in marginal areas robbed those with plenty of food, interrupting growth,
but rice cultivation knowledge still spread.
(2) Rice agriculture origin from Taohuayuan in Wuling, to Pengtoushan site, Hunan.
(A) Rice agriculture spread to many places after a Yangtze basin cultivation stage, but production was
not improved due to lack of safe central storage. However, there were many hill towns like the
Yellow basin’s Huashan (ancient Midu or rice town)(18), serving as rice granaries. After much
searching, farmers found a granary in a 200 m deep cave under Wuling Mountain, 15 km south of
Taoyuan County, Changde City, Hunan. Besides a surrounding plain, river, mountain and water,
there was plenty of room for storage in the cave. The high mountains isolated it from the rest of
the country. Jing Dynasty’s (265-419 AD) famous author Tao Yuanmin detailed the cave in his
article Tao Hua Yuan Jib. This cave is now only a scenic spot.
(B) When rice-cultivating technique was introduced to the Wuling Mountain area, the Panhu or Pangu
hunter-gatherers had already settled, having crossed the Yangtze on gourds(19). After planting
gourds under trees as climbing vines, they changed their name from Pangu (pan = settle, gu =
ancient) to Panhu (pan = to coil, hu = gourd). Historic records show the “Wuling Mountain Wuxi
barbarians descend from the Panhu”(20), “the mountain being 10,000 ren high (ca. 80,000 ft.), with
caves built by the Panhu”(21).
After migration, the Pan and Panhu lived in harmony, moving to Taohuayuan (cave) and renaming
it Dongting (courtyard in cave), adjoining Dongting Lake. After first planting rice, they expanded
from the cave, but stored their harvest there, not having to worry about its safety(22).
(C) Population increased and living and cultural standards improved after generations of hard work.
The limited capacity of the cave and surroundings forced some to other Li County communities
centered at Pengtoushan. They also protected themselves by trenching around their settlement (rise
of early cities) and a joint protection plan with neighbors. They also halved dried gourds into piao
for use as containers or utensils, and in addition, invented the peng li (peng = sound; li = gourd)(23)
system by hitting piao with a wood pestle to contact neighbors. The term Pengli was later used for
the name of the people and the implication of organized armed forces.
a
b
Pangu is a legendary being said to evolve from chaos; in dying he gave birth to the universe – note by WT
Tao Hua Yuan Ji (Tao = plum, Hua = flower, Yuan =head of stream, Ji =story) is a story of utopia – note by WT.
3
(D) After settling in Pengtoushan, likely the old “Pengli capital”, people expanded east via small
streams(24) south of the Yangtze, arriving at Poyang Lake. Thus, “Pengli became a rich inhabitable
water area”(25). Records show “Tai Lake or Dongting, with Bao Mountain and its many caves in its
middle, derives from dong ting (dong = cave, ting = courtyard)(26).
(E) After domesticating and naming water buffalo (for cultivating rice paddy) li for its black colour,
the Pengli changed their name to Li. As the Jiangnan depended on buffalo, they became known as
Jiuli (jiu = nine or many, li = black-haired people).
(F) Some Zhulou people of south Shandong moved south ca. 10,000 years ago and amalgamated with
the Jiuli as the Zhurong(27). In south Shandong, the Zhulou planted rice on chun fen (20th day of 3rd
month or Vernal equinox in solar calendar), but after lengthy observation, changed to when Mars
rises in the evening(28), a trait of the original Chu culture(29).
(3) Rice agricultural society origin from Hemudu in Zhejiang to Ningshao plain
(A) Social outlook – After 2,000 years of rice farming growth at Pengtoushan, the Yangtze basin had
heavy rice production and advanced handicrafts 7,000 years ago. Hemudu site remains show the
Gonggong started as a primitive rice society with these achievements(30):
 Large rice area in Tienli adequate for daily consumption;
 Skin clothing as well as silk and linen;
 Gan lan or multi-storied houses;
 Domesticated water buffalo, pig, chicken, dog, etc.;
 Pottery, ivory & lacquerware, etc.;
 Stone ax, bow and arrow as weapons;
 Tao shun (clay wind-instrument) and gu shao (bone whistle) as musical/warning instrument;
 Raft for water transport and business;
 Written characters.
These people expanded their territory and practiced slavery, Hemudu’s achievements in Jiangnan
Zhejiang resembling a civilized society which led the world at that time.
(B) Environment – its uniqueness promoting Hemudu’s achievement:
 Hemudu has plains and lakes, its Siming Mountain and nearby hills covered with subtropical
evergreens and deciduous trees, and its many water lakes and swamps ideal for cultivation.
Ningshao’s 130 (E-W) x 30 km plain, adjacent to Hangzhou Wan (Wangpan Bay) in the north
and Zhoushan Islands in the east, was formed from Yellow Sea and nearby lake sediments. Its
four seasons with moderate year-round temperature, sufficient sunlight and rain (average 1500
mm yearly) make Hemudu a golden rice cultivation belt with unlimited natural resources for
ancient people(31).
 As Hemudu is isolated east by the Yellow sea, south and west by Fujian and Zhejiang
mountains and north by Hongzhou Wan, the Gonggong were safe from invasion, the only
danger from Zhongyuan and Shandong in the north, but the long difficult intervening water
ways limited territorial expansion southeast. As such a situation existed until some time before
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Yao (2356 BC) and Shun (2255 BC) periods, the Gonggong on their home ground rivaled other
peoples in China.
(C) Origin of Gonggong people –
 The Gonggong originated from You Chao Shic (You = to have, Chao = nest. Shi = person) 3040,000 years ago, with Hemudu gan lan dwellings resembling tree nests.
 Rice cultivation is tied to Tianhuangd people (Tian = heaven, huang = emperor or ruler), their
Erjian site remains >1,000 years older than Hemudu(32). Jiangjun cliff painters were likely
Hemudu people because they believed in the sun god Taiyang and “many of their artifacts
involve worshipping the sun”(33).
 Human face, snake and red hair images (34) suggest the Gonggong must be related to Dihuang.
 The Gonggong family name is Feng, indicating they were Renhuang descendants.
Another sign the Gonggong were Three Emperor descendents is the jade human-animal deity
zong (octagonal badge of rank) engraved with Tianhuan human figure, with Dihuang (animal
head and paws) in the middle, and Renhuang (human head with feathered hat) on top. This
piece is Liangzhu culture.
 Pengtoushan influenced Hemudu culture even more, according to the legend “the Gonggong
arose from the river where the Zhurong descended”(37).
The above examples list three stages of Chinese rice origin, with the many Neolithic rice remains
divided into three types matching these stages. It was generally accepted rice originated in Hemudu
culture, but present research shows it originated much earlier. Several years ago, Pengtoushan was
suggested as the rice origin centre, but it lacks essential domestic and wild rice traits. New data
suggests rice cultivation originated on the Po River in Jiangxi ca. 14-15,000 years ago(38).
3. Rice origin and Jiangjun cliff painting
In my article “Jiangjun cliff paintings and rice origin” (Agricultural Archaeology 1996 [1]) I
compared rice production in Lianyungang with Po River:
(1) Environments are basically identical. South of Lianyungang is the north bank of lower Huai River
and “the boundary of dryland crops and rice farming is on the north edge of Jiang-Huai region”(39).
(2) Lianyungang area has wide wild rice distribution.
You Chao Shi is a mythical person who taught ancients to live in tree nests to escape wild animals – note by WT
While Tianhuang (heaven ruler), Dihuang (earth ruler) and Renhuang (people ruler) were three ancient Chinese
Emperors, some sources call them Fu Xi, Shen Nung and Huang Di, rulers from 2852 to 2596 BC – note by WT.
c
d
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(3) Its cave dwellings, especially Shuilian in Yuntai Mountain, have no typical remains, but they could
have been lost when sea-levels were higher.
(4) Surrounded by mountains and sea, people could live on fishing and hunting if rice farming failed.
(5) Kunlun descendants of Tienhuang, occupying the Jiangjun cliff site, already consumed grain crops
as major food, according to historic records,.
(6) A discrepancy is that rock paintings are >20,000 years old, yet rice remains are 7-8,000 years,
much younger than those in Jiangxi’s Xianrendong. But the environment changed tremendously in
Tienhuang, with sea-level now 50-60 m higher than 10-20,000 years ago(40). Remains like those in
Xianrendong and Diaotonghuan possibly exist but have not yet been found.
Ren Zhong mentioned: “After controlling Si River flow, the Yellow River entered the Huai, bringing
thick yellow sediment that covered archaeological sites. This suggests rich ancient agricultural remains
exist in the area of Yellow-Huai and Jiang-Huai near Huaiyang City”(41).
I think the Tienhuang may be one of the first rice cultivators, but neither they nor the Po invented
rice cultivation. Po ancestors were the Fan of north Shandong (Zibo area), while Tienhuang ancestors
were the Youcao Shi of south Shandong (Rizhao County). Though separated by Qi Mountain, they intermarried. The Panggu forced the Fan to Jiangxi earlier than Tienhuang. Evolving from hunter-gathering
to cultivation revolutionizes production, but changing from cereals to rice revolutionizes farming, their
nature and social purpose different. While Jiangjun cliff remains are inadequate to prove rice origin, we
conclude Po basin is the origin of cultivated rice, which may change with new data. As Ren Zhong said:
“Huai basin agriculture started 40-50,000 years ago”. The Xiacaowen of Xuyi not only were physically
like modern people, but were an inter-racially married clan, made simple clothing, and started incipient
planting and livestock. Not only is this “the place where Jiang-Huai rice originated”(43), but Jiangjun
cliff cultivated rice did not originate in Poyang.
4. Discussion of Yuzhanyan remains in Dao County
Liu Zhiyi’s “Important implications of Yuzhanyan excavated remains in Dao County, Hunan”
(Agricultural Archaeology 1996 [3]) listing cultivated rice, potsherds, weaving marks and many 12,000
year-old dried animal and plant remains(43) really says pottery, rice cultivation and weaving started no
later than 12,000 years ago. They were not the earliest Neolithic remains because they did not appear
suddenly without initiation and growth, but there is no apparent connection to the south Yangtze River.
Not only is new origin discussion needed, but the source of Jiahu remains in Wuyang County, Henan, is
also doubtful because Chen Baozhang says they are “contemporaneous but more developed than
Pengtoushan remains”(44). The following is my point of view:
That Jiahu remains originated in Dao County is doubtful. Zhang Min indicated “archaeological finds
depend largely on few accidental possibilities and should not be considered sole evidence” (45). I think
Jianu and Dao County remains originated jointly on the lower Huai River.
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(1) Many similarities exist between primitive east Jiang-Huai culture (Longquizhuang stage 1) and
Xinzhen Peiligang, Mixian Wugou, Beigang and Jiahu. “While cultural succession is obvious, and
Longquizhuang pottery types exceed Peiligang”(46), would more types imply a longer history?
(2) Cultural remains obviously originated in Longquizhuang in lower Jiang-Huai, as “ancient people
have always settled here, from 40-50,000 year-old Caowen to 7,000 year-old Longquizhuang”(47).
(3) Jiangjun cliff paintings describe the 20,000 year-old Tienhuang altar(48), but its historic data should
not be neglected.
We conclude rice agriculture grew to an incipient stage 20-30,000 years ago when sea level was ca.
120 m lower(49). Coastal paddies submerged until 15,000 years ago, forcing out aboriginal Kunlun. One
Huai River group moved west to Wuyang, Henan, to form Jiahu. Another crossed the Yangtze, passed
Dongting Lake, continued south on the Xiong and Xiao Rivers, and reached Yuzhanyan in Dao County.
They finally settled in an obscure cave, 70-80 m. above ground and measuring 7-800,000 cu. m, its
foreground suitable for rice.
The Yuzhanyan settlers had advanced production, rice cultivation, pottery making, weaving and selfprotection. Under ideal regional conditions, they created the bright Yuzhanyan remains.
Dao in Dao County could be an ancient place-name, but “there is no definition and superficially it
may mean Da (large)”(50). It may also be a clan name for the Tienhuang (51). Da (large) County people
descended from the Tienhuang, but there are also several Dao place names in Yellow basin. “Qiangdao
County is in Longxi”(52) and “Caiwu was Yindao in Chun-Qiu period”(53). But Dao culture did not evolve
because its bearers did not have a strong base or self-protection and moved away or were conquered.
5. Archaeology and historic data
Results are better when historic data is guided archaeologically because vast unsorted continuous
historic data can impede archaeological research. None of the several hundred Palaeolithic or several
thousand Neolithic remains are studied using ancient historic data. Under the thinking that “gu (ancient)
excludes the last three generations”, ancient culture has lost history and become prehistory.
Recently, Western countries have invaded China materially and spiritually, the latter destroying selfrespect and confidence, but China’s deep wide history made its spirit unconquerable. Some Westernized
Chinese believe ancient jing (sacred books, e.g. I Jing, Odes, etc.) and history (Shih Ji, Book of History,
etc.) are all counterfeit. When challenged, they ask for evidence, censuring the ancient jing and history
as trash, which unfortunately, was not too long ago(54). China was defeated culturally because it lacked
scientific knowledge, but our recent archaeological effort has won world-renown. As archaeological
results alone are useless, archaeologist Su Binychi has raised this question and suggested archaeology
serves history, and history and archaeology should be researched together scientifically(55).
>3,000 years of history was officially recognized through Wang Guowei’s proof that Xiangong and
Xianwang history of Shang Dynasty (1766-1121 BC) recorded in Jiaguwen is genuine. But Xia Dynasty
(or Hsia Dynasty, 2205-1765 BC) history is still in doubt.
7
It is ridiculous to say China lacks ancient history because it is uninterrupted in the Yellow basin,
where “Pangu separated the sky and earth with Three Sovereign Rulers and Five Emperors till today” e.
Dynasties change, but rulers or emperors all descend from Tienhuang, according to family roots. The
Shan Hai Jing is an ancient family topography (including Three Sovereign Rulers and Five Emperors),
but this has been neglected. As nobody fully understands either Shan Hai Jing or chapter 1 of Shu Jing”
(Book of History), it is a huge task tying archaeological results with Jing and ancient historic texts.
6. An example of “dual-evidence”
Archaeological research should combine excavation and historic data. About ten years ago, my
combination breached the ancient pictogram “X”f (see 16th line from bottom on p.67 of original text).
The following three steps allowed me to trace the history back 10,000 years.
The first step is confirming that “X” represents sun-related scenery of time and season. I found that
“teaching people time and season” in Shu Jing (Book of History) describes this activity. A Tang Yao
period (2356-2255 BC) instrument (sunrise from Yanggu), measuring the centre of time and season (like
Greenwich, BCG), is on a mountain in Ju County, Shandong, with “X” a realistic construction(56).
While the Tang Yao ruler announced it, the second step is finding who defined the four seasons.
According to the legend “Kuafu followed the sun to Yugu”(57), “X” depicts seasonal sunrise defined by
Kuafu at Yugu. The description matches the story of “Kuafu chasing the sun” in Shan Hai Jing.
The third step is finding who invented “sunrise from Yanggu”. If the Book of History shows the
sunrise picture existed long before Kuafu, who invented the statement “sun rises from Yanggu”? As
legend shows “it is in Zhuzhou under Kunlun Mountain”, the pictogram “X” shows the place belongs to
Tienhuang, under Kunlun Mountain, proving “X” was invented 20-30,000 years ago by Tienhuang(58).
After deciphering, the difficult Book of History should be easy to accept.
Finally, I pay my respects to Agricultural Archaeology editor-in-chief Chen Wenhua, who provided
much data and a place to publish. As his open-mind supported continuous study, I want to work another
ten years and wish Chen well in his editorial work.
References:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Wang Xiantang, Cultural history of Yan Huang clan, Chi Lu Pub. Co.
“Chu Tien Zong Heng”, People’s Daily pub. Co.
Relic Periodicals, Vol 1, p. 46, 1990
See (3)
See (1)
Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 1, p. 56, 1992
See (1)
Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, 1994
e
see p. 6 note. The first three of the Five Emperors, Tai Hao, Yen Di, Huang Di, Shao Hao and Chuan Xu (2852-2205 BC)
overlap the Three Sovereign Rulers – note by WT.
f
bird sitting on a mountain, symbolizing time and season – note by BCG.
8
(9) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 96, 1996
(10) Guang Ming Daily News, March 26, 1996
(11) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 101, 1996
(12) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 84, 1995
(13) Yu Quanzhong, The new continent of Chinese ancient cultures, Heilongjiang People’s Pub. Co.
(14) See (13)
(15) See (1)
(16) Historic research, Vol. 3, 1987
(17) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 84, 1994
(18) Shan Hai Jing
(19) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 1, p. 140, 1993
(20) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 43, 1995
(21) Liu Chiqian, Understanding Chinese Classics, Institute of Social Science Pub. Co.
(22) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 89, 1995
(23) Zhonghua Dictionary
(24) Shu. Yu gong
(25) See (24)
(26) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 67, 1994
(27) Zuo Zhuan. Zhao Gong 17th year
(28) He Xing, The Origin of Daities, San Lian Book Store
(29) Hubei Daily News, April 5, 1992
(30) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 1, p. 71, 1995
(31) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 54, 1996
(32) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 2, p. 244, 1986
(33) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 56, 1996
(34) Yuan Ke, Chinese Legendary and Mythology, Vol. 1, p. 140
(35) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol.13, p. 74, 1995
(36) Kaogu, Vol 2, p. 52, 1997
(37) Shan Hai Jing
(38) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 96, 1996
(39) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 72, 1994
(40) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 55, 1996
(41) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 75, 1996
(42) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 76, 1996
(43) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 96, 1996
(44) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 1, p. 55, 1997
(45) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 114, 1996
(46) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 113, 1996
(47) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, p. 75, 1996
(48) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 1, p. 1, 1996
(49) Xing Hua Digest, Vol. 10, p. 188, 1996
(50) Lao Zi, Dao De Jing
(51) Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 1, p. 80, 1996
(52) See (1)
(53) See (1)
(54) Collected Mao Tzedong articles
9
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
Kaogu, Vol 6, p. 536, 1995
Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 3, 1996
Shan Hai Jing
Agricultural Archaeology, Vol. 1, 1996
10