The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to foreign policy formulation, types of foreign policy, the role of the president and Congress in foreign policy, as well as factors in determining America’s military policy. Major topics include, but are not limited to, the debate over the president’s sending of troops overseas without a congressional declaration of war, a discussion on the doctrine of preemption, and the restructuring of the U.S. military. After reading and reviewing the material in this chapter, you should be able to do each of the following:
1. Distinguish between the types of foreign policy.
2. Describe the constitutional framework that the president and Congress work within when it comes to America’s use of the military.
3. Discuss the significance of September 11, 2001 in relation to America’s national security and the fight against terrorism.
4. Discuss America’s efforts in nation building with a special focus on the use of the military.
5. Discuss the challenges America faces in redesigning the military.
6. Discuss the politics of both foreign and military policy.
I. Introduction
A. Foreign policy formulation is extremely difficult
B. Democracy may make it more difficult
C. There are advantages and disadvantages to policy making in a democracy
II. Kinds of Foreign Policy
A. Majoritarian policies such as military spending
B. Interest group policies such as free trade
C. Client centered policies such as tax breaks for business
D. President more dominant when policy is majoritarian; Congress more dominant when it is interest group oriented
III. The Constitutional Framework
A. President is commander in chief of the armed forces
B. Congress has final approval of the budget
C.
Congress had the ability to “declare war”
D. U.S. has often gone to war without formal declaration
1. Only five or six of our fourteen major wars have had a declaration
2. War Powers Act of 1973—curbing president’s power
E. Presidential support agencies
1. National Security Council
2. State Department
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Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy 249
3. Defense Department
4. Others: CIA, FBI, DEA, etc.
IV. Our New International World
A. Significance of September 11, 2001
1. Pushed Bush administration focus to foreign policy
2. Structure of military not conducive to fighting terrorism
3. Role of special forces
B. Three new problems to face
1. Can we help rebuild nations?
2. Can we develop a clear foreign policy for how and when we should use force?
3. Can we reorganize the military in order to better combat terrorism?
V. Rebuilding Nations
A. Historical successes and failures
1. Germany and Japan—successes
2. Somalia and Haiti—failures
B. Inter-agency rivalries
VI. Foreign Policy and Terrorism
A. Role of president and National Security Advisor
B. “Rally around the flag”—public support
C. Presidential popularity (time of crisis) and Congressional support
D. Shift from bipolar world to unipolar world
E. Bush’s proactive policy on terrorism: preemption
F. Impact of party differences and political ideologies
G. Seeking U.N. support
VII. Changing the Military
A. Rumsfeld’s redesign of the military
1. Special forces
2. Technology
B. Structure of the Army—ten large divisions
C. Structure of the Marines—three large expeditionary forces
D. Each military force is headed by a chief of staff
E. These leaders form the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS)
F. Role of the JCS—advisory group for president
VIII. The Politics of Foreign and Military Policy
A. Majoritarian politics
1. Cost/benefit ratio of going to war
2. Support/opposition of Americans to military action
3. Views of foreign policy elites
B. Interest group politics
1. Free trade issues such as NAFTA
2. American opinion on free trade is skeptical
3. President Bush knew this going into 2004 campaign
C. Client politics
1. Example: military bases
2. Commission on Base Realignment and Closure
3. Politics of closing bases
D. Entrepreneurial politics
1. Military modernization
2.
Kennedy’s push for creation of Special Forces
3. In 2004, debate on these issues is ongoing
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250 Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy
Match the following terms and descriptions.
1. _____ French writer who wrote about
American democracy early in the nineteenth century.
2. _____ Regime in Afghanistan supported in part by Osama
Bin Laden’s Al Qaeda network.
3. _____ Describes how the American people tend to support the president’s sending of troops abroad.
4. _____ Describes how during the Cold
War there were only two super-powers in the world.
5. _____ Describes a commitment to getting rid of a hostile government.
6. _____ Describes how we now live in a world with the United States as the sole super-power.
7. _____ The doctrine of attacking a determined enemy before it can launch an attack against the United States or an ally.
8. _____ A treaty that created free trade among Canada, Mexico, and the United States.
9. _____ Created to consider baseclosing recommendations from the secretary of defense.
10. _____ Confers both benefits and costs on almost everybody.
11. _____ An attempt by Congress to curb the president’s warmaking powers.
12. _____ Describes an opinion in
American history that our military forces and our money should stay at home. a. “regime change” b. NAFTA c. client politics d. “rally around the Flag” e. interest group politics f. unipolar world g. Commission on Base Realignment and Closure h. Taliban i. Donald Rumsfeld j. bipolar world k. majoritarian policies l. War Powers Act of 1973 m. Alexis de Tocqueville n. isolationist o. national security council p. pre-emption
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Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy 251
13. _____ Composed of the president, vice-president, secretaries of state and defense, and whose purpose is to assist the president in developing foreign policy principles.
14. _____ Secretary of Defense who has been an ardent advocate of redesigning the military so that it can move more quickly.
15. _____ A type of politics in which there are narrowly concentrated benefits and narrowly concentrated costs.
16. _____ A type of politics in which there are narrowly concentrated benefits and widely distributed costs.
A number of misconceptions are listed below. You should be able to refute each statement in the space provided, referring to information or argumentation contained in this chapter. Sample answers appear at the end of this chapter.
1.
“Only the president has the constitutional authority to declare war.”
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2.
“Today, a vast majority of Americans adhere to an isolationist philosophy.”
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3.
“America has always been successful at rebuilding nations.”
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
4.
“America has never really experienced being directly attacked on American soil.”
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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252 Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy
Read each statement carefully. Mark true statements T. If any part of the statement is false, mark it F, and write in the space provided a concise explanation of why the statement is false.
1. T F Some scholars believe that foreign policy is especially easy in a democracy.
______________________________________________________________________
2. T F The War Powers Act of 1973 was an attempt by Congress to curb presidential warmaking power.
______________________________________________________________________
3. T F September 11, 2001 was a date that changed only America’s foreign policy.
______________________________________________________________________
4. T F The State Department usually sees eye to eye with the Defense Department.
______________________________________________________________________
5. T F Congress technically has the sole power to declare war.
______________________________________________________________________
6. T F President Clinton always asked for congressional support for military action in other areas of the world.
______________________________________________________________________
7. T F Congress must vote for the military budget and all of the major weapons the armed forces require.
______________________________________________________________________
8. T F Foreign policy elites tend to have different views on many issues than the public at large.
______________________________________________________________________
9. T F Free trade does not expand exports.
______________________________________________________________________
10. T F Americans tend to be overwhelmingly supportive of free trade.
______________________________________________________________________
11. T F American steel companies have found it very difficult to compete with imported steel.
______________________________________________________________________
12. T F Even anti-war doves in Congress will fight to keep bases open in their home districts.
______________________________________________________________________
13. T F President John F. Kennedy argued against the creation of Special Forces in the military.
______________________________________________________________________
14. T F America has also sought and won U.N. approval in using force against other nations.
______________________________________________________________________
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Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy 253
15. T F According to the public, the protection of U.S. jobs should be a major goal of foreign policy.
______________________________________________________________________
Circle the letter of the response that best answers the question or completes the statement.
1. The Constitution makes the president _____ of the armed forces. a. president pro tempore b. congressional ambassador c. general d. the symbolic leader e. commander in chief
2. The following is an example of a major agency that helps the president discharge presidential authority in the area of foreign policy: a. National Security Council. b. State Department. c. Defense Department. d. all of the above. e. none of the above.
3. Since World War II, Americans have become more positively interested in: a. isolationism. b. the larger world. c. expanding free trade. d. sending more money into foreign aid. e. expanding illegal immigration into this country.
4. Which of the following is not a successful lesson that the United States has learned about rebuilding nations? a. Do not leave the country quickly. b. Organize your own agencies so that they can operate together. c. Make certain civilian and military operations are coordinated. d. Withdraw troops as soon as possible. e. none of the above.
5.
A president’s popularity tends to rise dramatically during a: a. time of peace. b. showdown with the Congress. c. military crisis. d. partisan election. e. constitutional issue with the federal courts.
6. The organization that assists the president in enunciating principles that can govern his foreign policy decisions is the: a. National Security Council. b. Council of Economic Advisors. c. Federal Reserve. d. Office of Management and Budget. e. Congressional Budget Office.
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254 Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy
7. Supporters of the policy of preemption hail it as a positive step because it: a. gives Congress more authority in war. b. allows America to be less proactive in fighting terrorism. c. gives the president the ability to declare martial law. d. circumvents the United Nations. e. can defeat terrorists before they attack us.
8. Fundamentally, the U.S. Army is still organized around: a. three big expeditionary forces. b. the Joint Chiefs of Staff. c. the National Security Council. d. Special Forces. e. ten large divisions.
9. Each military force is headed by a(n): a. chief of staff. b. presidential commission. c. congressional committee. d. division head. e. elected official.
10. Current Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld an ardent advocate of: a. larger military units. b. looser cooperation among the armed services. c. less reliance on Special Forces. d. redesigning the military. e. less reliance on technology.
11. The typical military officer will hold his or her particular assignment for no more than: a. five years. b. eighteen months. c. six months. d. one year. e. three years.
12. Big foreign policy decisions about going to war or not going to war are examples of: a. majoritarian politics. b. client politics. c. interest group politics. d. entrepreneurial politics. e. partisan politics.
13. The gender gap between men and women has disappeared on war issues since: a. World War II. b. the Korean conflict. c. Vietnam. d. September 11, 2001. e. the Gulf War.
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Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy 255
14. Elites can be defined as people: a. actively involved in fundraising only. b. actively involved in debating policy only. c. who work solely for government agencies. d. with the most money in America. e. actively involved in debating foreign policy issues because of their positions in government agencies, private organizations, etc.
15. Most aspects of foreign affairs are shaped by: a. interest group politics. b. democrats. c. republicans. d. popular presidents. e. key senators.
16. One important part of our military policy reflects: a. allowing gays in the military. b. the current chain of command. c. surplus spending. d. client politics. e. technological cutbacks.
17. Military modernization often reflects: a. majoritarian politics. b. client politics. c. entrepreneurial politics. d. interest group politics. e. liberal politics.
18. John F. Kennedy argued strongly for the creation of _____ in the military. a. more commissaries b. key civilian leader positions c. a cold war environment d. a free press e. special forces
19. A poll taken prior to 9/11 suggests that ordinary citizens are less likely than _____ to favor giving aid to foreign countries. a. elites b. the working poor c. the military d. social security recipients e. none of the above
20. The following is an example of when the U.S. has sought and obtained United Nations support before using military force against another country: a. North Vietnam b. Haiti c. Bosnia d. Kosovo e. Korea
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256 Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy
Practice writing extended answers to the following questions. These test your ability to integrate and express the ideas that you have been studying in this chapter.
1. Should America always seek the approval of the United Nations prior to intervening in another country’s affairs? Why or why not?
2. Should the U.S. military be used to rebuild nations? Does this conflict with the military’s primary role of fighting and winning wars?
3. Since only five or six of the fourteen major wars that this country has engaged in have followed a declaration of war, should Congress reassert itself in this area? If Congress fails to “declare war,” is this a technical violation of the Constitution?
4. Do you agree or disagree with a restructuring of the U.S. military? What are your suggestions in regard to such a restructure? Should we prioritize bolstering conventional forces, special forces, and the closure of some military bases? Why or why not?
Harper, John. American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy.
Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Kissinger, Henry. Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreign Policy Crises.
Simon and Schuster,
2003.
Lunev, Stanislav. Through the Eyes of the Enemy.
Washington DC: Regnery Publishing, Inc.,
1998.
Foreign Policy: http://www.fpa.org/
Military Policy:
Department of Defense: http://www.defenselink.mil/
Department of Homeland Security: http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/
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Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy 257
1. m
10. k
11. l
12. n
13. o
14. i
15. e
16. c
2. h
3. d
4. j
5. f
6. a
7. p
8. b
9. g
1. Constitutionally only the Congress can declare war.
2. Beginning with World War II, Americans have tended to move away from isolationist views and have become more interested in the larger world.
3. Actually, America has experienced both successes and failures in rebuilding nations.
4. December 7, 1941 and September 11, 2001 are examples of direct attacks on America.
1. F. They actually believe it may be more difficult.
2. T
3. F. It also changed military policy.
4. F. They sometimes work as rivals.
5. T
6. F. He never did so.
7. T
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258 Chapter 14: Making Foreign and Military Policy
8. T
9. F. It does expand exports.
10. F. They tend to be very skeptical.
11. T
12. T
13. F. He argued for their creation.
14. F. The recent use of force in Iraq is a prime example.
15. T
1. e
10. d
11. b
12. a
13. d
14. e
15. a
16. d
17. c
2. d
3. b
4. d
5. c
6. a
7. e
8. e
9. a
18. e
19. a
20. e
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