1 In search of the missing link in VET delivery Homi Azemikhah University of Adelaide Abstract In 2008, the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) argued that, globally, VET systems are still at a moot point and it is not clear as to whether or not they have delivered sustainable employment to their participants, even if they have undergone a period of continuous reform. The question is why, after continuous reforming of the VET systems, around the world, for the last decade or so, VET systems are still unable to deliver competencies that lead to sustainable employment for their learners? One can propose the key question: “What is the missing link?” This paper attempts to investigate the intricacies of the key question by examining the interplay of various policies and research projects that were undertaken across Europe and Australia in the delivery of vocational education and training, in search of the answer. Introduction The European Union (EU) launched the Lisbon Strategy, at the turn of the millennium, as a policy response to the challenges of globalisation and ageing population. The objectives of the strategy were defined by the European Council for Europe in order to become the most dynamic and competitive knowledge-based economy in the world by 2010. In 2003, to adapt vocational education and training (VET) to such a knowledge based economy in order to meet the requirements of the 21st century, the EU called for comprehensive approaches for the delivery of vocational education: The multi-dimensional character of the Lisbon strategy calls for comprehensive approaches in which lifelong learning and competence development should be integral elements of a wider policy closely interrelated with the issues of economic development and performance, employment promotion, quality of work, social inclusion.(EU, 2003; European Union, 2003) This research paper examines, firstly, to what extent the research has impacted the European policies that led to changes shaping the VET systems throughout Europe in the first decade of the new millennium as a response to challenges of globalization. Secondly, it examines to what extent the elements of Lifelong Learning (LLL) and competency development have been integrated globally by further policy development, in both global and Australian context. 2 Lifelong Learning An overview of the international trends by Dr George Papadopoulos, former OECD Deputy Director, has revealed that major international agencies have given top priority to LLL (Kearns, McDonald, Candy, Knights and Papadopoulos, 1999). As Bradley(2008:10) has hinted: in order to take account of training for those who are already in the workplace, it is necessary to turn the rhetoric of lifelong learning into a reality. Hence, it is important to understand what is meant by lifelong learning at the outset. The following definition emerged from consultations that were undertaken across Australia in 1996: Lifelong learning is a continuously supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills and understanding they will require throughout their lifetimes and to applying them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances and environments (Kearns et al, 1999). Hence, both teaching and learning in the 21st century are going through transformation by integrating Lifelong Learning and competency development as the integral elements of the holistic approach for VET, resulting in the concept of competence for life as illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1 - Competence for life Thus, the widening of the concept of competence needs a 21st century approach to learning, skills and workforce development (Kearns, 2004) where the competencies that need to be initially developed by learners are also required to be maintained throughout learners’ life. Therefore, the two emerging concepts of competency development and LLL are inter-related. These have been labeled as Initial Vocational Education and Training (IVET) and Continuing Vocational Education and Training (CVET) (CEDEFOP, 2008). Initial Vocational Education and Training (IVET) Cedefop (2010:14) has defined IVET “as training undertaken typically after full-time compulsory education to promote the acquisition of the necessary knowledge, skills and competences for entry to an occupation or group of occupations”. To stay competent for life, the individuals are required to also engage in the continuing vocational education and training (CVET). The continuing vocational education and training (CVET) can be broadly defined as “professional or vocational development through education and training undertaken typically after one has completed initial vocational education and training (IVET)”. 3 During 2008, Cedefop developed a comparative analysis and study of IVET in Europe. This work was carried out on the basis of twenty five country reports by ReferNet. ReferNet is a network created by Cedefop in 2002 that is specialised in preparation of country reports on vocational education and training (VET) systems for member states, as well as Iceland and Norway. Cedefop (2008) has pointed out that one way to improve competitiveness at the global level is to increase participation in vocational education and training. For this reason, vocational education and training (VET) is the focus of several European policies. Cedefop (2008) has further emphasized that, given the current socioeconomic circumstances in the context of globalization, countries around the world need to achieve the following goals: Firstly, a better qualified labour force for the restructuring, innovation as well as transition to the knowledge based economy. Secondly, to achieve such a qualified labour force they need an initial vocational education and training system (IVET) which is a supplier of new professionals (Cedefop, 2008). In addition, it is necessary to improve the quality of IVET in order to increase its attractiveness at the global level (Cedefop, 2008). To develop an understanding of the main characteristics of initial vocational education (IVET) in Europe, Cedefop undertook a comparative analysis of the VET systems of the following countries in 2008: Belgium Ireland Cyprus Austria Finland Czech Republic Greece Latvia Poland Sweden Denmark Spain Lithuania Portugal United Kingdom Germany France Hungary Slovakia Iceland Estonia Netherlands Slovenia Norway Among the 25 countries that were reviewed for this study, three have already adopted national qualifications frameworks (Ireland, France and the UK), and the rest, except Cyprus, which remains sceptical, intend to introduce such a system in the near future (Cedefop, 2008). The role of IVET in meeting these goals was set out by the Lisbon strategy which also can be seen in the targets laid down by the European Union, as follows: (a) Countries should reduce the share of early school-leavers (aged 18 to 24) to 10%; (b) A minimum of 85% of young people (aged 20-24) should have completed at least Upper-secondary education; (c) At least 12.5% of adults (aged 25-64) should participate in lifelong learning. Given that the above objectives are important, the question is: What challenges is the VET system facing globally to achieve them? In Zooming in on 2010 Cedefop (2007) outlined that the type of challenges that the VET system will be facing globally in the next twenty years are demographic and occupational. The demographic 4 challenge is: dealing with decreasing participation of young people in upper, postsecondary, and tertiary education. The occupational challenges that are biased on higher skilled jobs involve: training large number of people with low skills and meeting current skill shortages. There have been three important policy statements in response to the above challenges that have shaped education at the EU level on the basis of the Lisbon strategy (CEDEFOP, 2008): The Copenhagen declaration (European Commission, 2002); established the European dimension to vocational education and training (VET) including recognition of qualifications and competences. The Maastricht communiqué (European Commission, 2004) built upon Copenhagen to establish a number of action plans at the national level, by increased investment to boost flexibility in VET systems in meeting the needs of employers and assisting those most vulnerable to changes in the labour market. The Helsinki communiqué (European Commission, 2006) confirmed the aims of Maastricht and drew attention to the fact that IVET must be an attractive option for young people. The crucial points emphasized by the Helsinki communiqué (European Commission, 2006a) were to increase the attractiveness of IVET to young people across Europe and to establish VET as a major part of lifelong learning. Therefore, combining competency development through IVET and lifelong learning through CVET are the necessary ingredients of lifelong success in developing competence and staying competent for life. The question is how these objectives need to be achieved globally. The Helsinki communiqué (European Commission, 2006) provides a solution by stating that, ‘European VET policies should promote high quality initial VET and create conditions to improve the skills of those in the labour force through continuing VET (CVET). Given that policies should engage all young people to acquire skills and competences relevant to the labour market requirements and to their future lives (European Commission, 2006:3) , the question is whether European policies can address the needs of IVET systems in various European countries and whether or not IVET systems are similar. Cedefop (2008) has reported that IVET systems seem to have some similarities in their structure, content and output; in particular, between groups of countries sharing a common approach to IVET, while at the same time, they also demonstrate substantial variations. In such a context, Cedefop (2008) has pointed out that European and national policies should tend to ensure quality outcomes by facilitating comparability of the structures of IVET systems. On this basis, both the structure and the content of IVET have gone through major reforms in all countries in recent time. These reforms have been substantial in former Eastern bloc countries that are adapting to the conditions of market economies, while other European countries are reforming their IVET systems to be more responsive to the demands of current and future labour-market (Cedefop, 2008). These trends require a brief look at the structure of IVET systems of these countries. 5 The Structure of IVET systems Until relatively recently, the structure of IVET systems included only the upper secondary level of schooling. But it is increasingly changing to include the lower secondary level. At this level, both general and academic studies as well as general vocational preparation are provided. Hence, IVET is comprised of academic, vocational, apprenticeship and special programs pathways. According to Cedefop (2008) countries such as Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, France, Hungary, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia and the UK, in addition to vocational studies or apprenticeship, provide special programmes that aim at young people at risk of dropping out of the IVET systems. In Europe, at present, IVET is considered as an alternative pathway to the academic route that contains many elements of an academic education which can, ultimately, lead to tertiary level. In the countries, such as Germany, where the dual system is well established, IVET has always combined practical experience in the workplace with academic study provided in the classroom (Cedefop, 2008). The IVET systems in various countries are different with respect to structure, curricula, qualification/accreditation, transfer, progression and the starting point in the larger education system. In addition, VET systems are not the same, in every country, in terms of transfer which is to allow people to move between academic and vocational streams or between the various modes of vocational provision. Allowing individuals to attain higher levels of achievement through either of the academic or vocational streams, is called progression and is achieved through various possible routes through the education system, as the following diagram illustrates. Figure 2 – IVET Pathways (adopted from CEDEFOP 2008) It is argued that facilitating learners to develop competencies for employability in both IVET and CVET systems require pedagogical strategies. Cedefop, (2008) has elaborated that the general challenge for VET pedagogy is to adapt to the increased international competition in providing people with skills and competencies to maintain their employability in the labour market. This, globally, requires a workforce for VET that is equipped with pedagogical knowledge in addition to the knowledge of the specific fields of delivery in which they are specialised. 6 IVET, CVET and VET pedagogy Cedefop (2008) has pointed out that pedagogical knowledge is the important component of VET teacher training. Pedagogical knowledge enables teachers to convey the knowledge that is pertinent to their field of expertise. This means that both IVET and CVET systems are constructed in various countries on the assumption that these systems are capable of such a task, leading to sustainable employment. Despite this, Cedefop (2008) has elaborated that VET systems, globally, are still at the moot point and it is not clear as to whether or not they have delivered sustainable employment to their participants, even if they have undergone a period of continuous reform. The question is why, after continuous reforming of the VET systems, around the world, for the last decade or so, VET systems are still unable to deliver competencies that lead to sustainable employment for their learners? What is the missing link? This answer can be found in the Tomlinson Inquiry (2010) that was undertaken in the UK. One of the most significant findings that emerged from Tomlinson Inquiry (2010) was the importance of pedagogy in VET and that to simply deliver vocational education and training, knowledge, per se, is not sufficient. Rather, the teacher must be adept in how they communicate that knowledge. Data collected by current PhD research at the University of Adelaide (Azemikhah, 2010:6) confirms Tomlinson’s (2010) finding that the role of teachers is to communicate knowledge effectively and DHM helps teachers to achieve this delivery objective (Azemikhah, 2010). This suggests that problems in Australia may not be how much knowledge is included in delivery, rather it is how pedagogically that knowledge is communicated to the learners. Tomlinson (2010) also emphasized that extended research into Vocational Pedagogy should become a priority for the VET sector. One of Tomlinson’s (2010) findings was that VET pedagogies remain at their infancy and relatively little research has been undertaken into these pedagogies. Further the report highlighted that developing pedagogical understanding is more complex than developing subject knowledge and concluded that a theory of applied learning is needed to facilitate such pedagogical understanding (Tomlinson, 2010). This research argues that the pedagogical understanding and the know-how in communicating pedagogic knowledge in VET delivery of expert knowledge is possible by application of the Double Heuristic Method (DHM) that is framed by four pillars of confidence, independence, currency and intelligence, as specified in the applied learning theory of Competencivism (Azemikhah, 2008). The pedagogical understanding of communicating that knowledge, in competency development, according to OECD (2009), should aim at closing the large gulf between learning and work (OECD, 2009). This means that the communication of that knowledge should be facilitated in the closing of such a gap. However, the difficulty of closing the gap between learning and work, as OECD (2009) has pointed out, is that while Learning is often seen as abstract, classroom-based and academic, the world of work is seen as concrete, with bosses and customers, profits and machinery (OECD, 2009:10). On this basis, it is argued that these are two different ethoses: there is the world of work as distinct from the world of learning. This is 7 further confirmed by Bates (1996) who has described competency based pedagogy as epiphenomenal, indicating deeper changes in social structures, that requires the synchronization of the two historically separate spheres of work and education. This synchronization (Bates, 1996) is not achieved by the question of how much knowledge is needed, as is the case in Australia, but requires a theory of applied learning (Tomlinson, 2010) to facilitate how to communicate that knowledge. OECD (2009) has pointed out that the task of VET is to provide learning for jobs, despite the fact that institutions providing VET have quite a different style from the world of work, (OECD, 2009:10). This suggests two distinctive and broad ethoses (the World of Work and the World of Learning), and it is necessary for the VET pedagogy to function within these two ethoses in order to connect the abstract, which deals with the mind, to the concrete, that deals with the hands, in the context of competency development (IVET) and lifelong learning (CVET). The question is where is the starting point of VET pedagogy for the teachers to teach and the learners to begin their learning journey? The answer is provided by NQC (2011:6) that asserts: “… work based learning caters for all those whose natural learning style is to learn from the concrete to the abstract (and to the theory), rather than the reverse. Such people are a significant proportion of learners, who are not well catered for in traditional teaching settings: schools and higher education tend to teach from the abstract to the concrete” (NQC, 2011:6). Hence, it is clear that the starting point for VET pedagogy is distinct from pedagogy applicable to schools and universities suggesting two distinctive pedagogical approaches as follows: Those in schools and universities whose starting point for learning is the abstract and working their way to the concrete and that Those mainly in VET whose starting point for learning is the concrete (the Hands) and working their way to the abstract (the Mind). Therefore, pedagogies in this manner can be broadly classified in two distinctive types which seem to be moving in the opposite direction. These two pedagogies may be called the Mind to Hands (M to H) pedagogy and the Hands to Mind (H to M) pedagogy. Although the learners may fall into either of the above categories, classifying them into the correct categories that they may belong to, may not be an easy task. However, irrespective of whichever category a learner may belong to, Azemikhah (2005) argues that he/she is required to interplay or inter-connect the hands and mind in order to learn and develop competencies. In such a context, the following questions need to be answered. How is one to connect concrete (hands) to abstract (Mind) and theorizing the interplay of the two? How can these pedagogies be framed by a theory to facilitate learning in the context of these two ethoses? 8 It is argued that the answers to these questions lead to the theory of applied learning. Thus, the global literature is explored in search of answers to the above questions. Communicating knowledge As referred earlier, Tomlinson Inquiry (2010) has pointed out that developing pedagogical understanding is more complex than developing subject knowledge. It is argued, here, that such complexity in understanding VET pedagogy is more clearly associated with connecting the abstract (the Mind) to the concrete (the hands). Given that contemporary research in cognitive science states that understanding complexity requires a clear mental model or schemata of some kind (Perkins and Unger, 1999). On this basis Azemikhah (2006:5) in addressing these pedagogical complexities has developed the Double Heuristic Method (DHM) as the mental model for VET delivery. The DHM connects the concrete (the Hands) to the abstract (the Mind) in communicating the knowledge as Tomlinson (2010) has emphasized as the most important component of VET pedagogy. Given that teachers must be adept at how they communicate the knowledge of a given topic and its application (Tomlinson, 2010), the pedagogical complexity of VET delivery is simplified by the interplay of the abstract (the Mind) and the concrete (the Hands) in the course of communicating such knowledge (OECD, 2009:10). Hence, Azemikhah (2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2010) concludes that such communication has become possible in VET delivery by the Double Heuristic Method (DHM). It is argued here that communicating knowledge of a topic is dependent upon the concepts, theories and methodologies by which we view the world (Gowin & Alvarez, 2005). This means that the knowledge that needs to be communicated in VET delivery should be clearly delineated in terms of, for example, concepts that are mapped to the subject module or unit’s requirements. This stage is an important stage, because any knowledge that needs to be communicated in VET delivery should be clearly stated before being communicated to learners. After the knowledge that needs to be communicated is clearly stated in terms of hands and mind, it would then become possible, in the second stage, to communicate it in terms of delivery methodologies and teaching strategies. When such knowledge is pedagogically mapped, based on the concrete and abstract notions of knowledge, it would then be possible for the teachers to communicate that knowledge pedagogically. These stages are crucial, as when the knowledge is mapped on the basis of the concrete and the abstract it becomes clear for the teachers to decipher how to communicate that knowledge effectively and pedagogically, by means of teaching strategies and methodologies. Azemikhah (2006) has argued that while “‘V’ diagrams that were designed by Gowin (Gowin and Alvarez, 2005) to decipher the complexities of construction of knowledge and knowledge making”, the DHM was designed to assist teachers to decipher the complexities of competencies and competency development in VET 9 delivery. Deciphering these complexities is the prerequisite for communicating knowledge in VET delivery. Without deciphering these complexities, any communication in VET delivery would be meaningless and futile as it does not serve its purpose. Facilitating such communication become possible and pedagogically sound by matching the VET delivery to the learners’ learning style, discussed next, turning the DHM into a pedagogic knowledge communication device. Facilitating both pedagogies and styles Given that facilitative teaching, as opposed to instructive teaching, is a concept resulting from the shift of emphasis in the learning theory, it is now widely recognised that teachers and trainers should become learning facilitators (CEDEFOP, 2009:120) . This suggests that when the interplay of the abstract (the Mind) and the concrete (the Hands) is mapped, it should be communicated in a facilitative teaching framework. This shift in emphasis in learning theory, from teaching to facilitative teaching (CEDEFOP, 2009:120), suggests the need for a facilitation framework in VET. It is argued that when assessed for competence in such facilitative framework, the learners, in addition to the mastery of knowledge and skills, should be able to demonstrate that they have become confident, independent, current and competently intelligent. These are discussed in more detail under the heading of the pillars of Competencivism in the research. Given that the term ‘pedagogy’ is used by educators in various ways, such as approaches to instruction, activities that impart skill (NQC, 2011:3), suggests that teachers need facilitative pedagogies to impart skills to the learners. Pedagogical strategies should aim at serving learners by aligning these strategies to the learners’ learning styles. Hence, it is crucial that VET pedagogy be facilitative and congruent with the learners’ learning styles to facilitate learning. The NQC (2011:6) has pointed out that VET learners’ natural learning style is to learn from the concrete to the abstract (and to the theory). In this way, work-based (VET) learning style commences from a practical engagement in the process (Hands) leading to abstraction and to theory (using the mind), while learning at higher education and schools commences from the abstract to the concrete, as the following diagram illustrates. Figure 3 – MHM and HMH pedagogies On this basis, VET pedagogy becomes congruent with the learners’ learning style. The matching of learning styles to the method of teaching (pedagogy) becomes meaningful in the learner centered context of VET. This approach to pedagogy suggests two pedagogic cycles of learning, HMH and MHM, as the above diagram illustrates. 10 HMH pedagogy The above arguments suggest that HMH pedagogy is applicable to VET and can be implemented in three stages. In stage 1 of HMH, the learners are involved in some activities that are practically done. In other words, the student has started practical activities even in a very limited way or by observing an illustration. At stage 2 what the learners have been practicing is linked by the teacher to relevant theory or relevant content. In this stage, the student checks whether what he/she performed in practice matches the relevant theories. The learners are matching relevant concepts with the activities that they have practically completed. At stage 3, the students return to the practice in a more refined way and continue further practice, if needed, to improve or start from where they left off, achieving a better result. MHM pedagogy As the above diagram illustrates, in MHM the teacher starts from abstract (the Mind) and delivers content to the learners, then the teacher moves to concrete (the Hands) providing some activities. The teacher, then, returns to the abstract (the Mind) to revisit the content or theory. Whether HMH or MHM approach in pedagogy is used, it is important that the learning cycle is repeated more than once to assist learners to master the tasks. According to Cedefop (2009:80) some of the emerging approaches to VET pedagogy are relying on harmonized theoretical and practical teaching roles, in which practical delivery draws substantially on illustrations and context setting within another. This suggests that Cedefop’s concept of context setting within another, supports the argument for cycles of practicing tasks, in parallel to learning in classroom. Further, both Stevenson (1994) and Billet (1993) have emphasized assessment of performance in multiple settings which suggests an assessment may be applied after each cycle of learning experience. Figure 4 – Parallel learning in multiple settings NQC (2011) has elaborated that work based learning involves the deliberate creation of workplace learning experiences such as a, b and c in Figure 4. As the above diagram illustrates, it is usually taking place in parallel with learning in the classroom which follows the pattern of concrete to abstract (C to A). According to NQC (2011) this process is planned to create learning approaches that are plaited and interwoven with each other. NQC (2011) has further emphasized that these learning experiences may occur in authentic learning environments, such as in workplaces or simulated work settings, but, in either case, are centered around a work-oriented learning outcome. It is evident that while VET learners moving from concrete (Hands) to abstract (Mind) they are using their Hands and Minds to achieve the desired outcome. Azemikhah (2005) has asserted that maintaining the equilibrium of hands and mind is vital in the learning process. The teacher role is to facilitate 11 learners to maintain such equilibrium throughout learning. Maintaining this equilibrium leads to the achievement of the four pillars of Competencivism: confidence, independence, currency and competency intelligence. Conclusion So, what is the missing link in VET delivery? It was established earlier that the two trends of IVET and CVET have emerged from the notions of competency development and lifelong learning (LLL). Pursuing these trends led to the realisation that VET pedagogies are at their infancy. Given the above emerging trends, it is clearly evident that IVET and CVET are interconnected yielding competence for life. It is argued, here, that, for understanding of how to develop and maintain competence for life through IVET and CVET globally a theoretical framework utilizing the HMH and MHM pedagogies is required as the theory of applied vocational learning. This theoretical framework is the missing link that is necessary to facilitate pedagogical understanding that can be used in applied vocational learning. The application and implementation of these pedagogies will transform VET delivery across the globe into a workable, teachable and learnable format, via a theory that facilitates the practice of teaching and learning in all the trades and professions and activities of life. This is confirmed by Dr Mary Bousted, General Secretary of the Association of Teachers and Lecturers in the UK who has stated: “There is a clear need to develop a theory of applied learning…we do not yet have one…Pedagogy is the most important thing for a teacher to understand, it is much easier to develop subject knowledge than it is to develop pedagogical understanding” (Tomlinson, 2010:42). Given that a theory of applied learning is required, this research proposes the theory of Competencivism on the basis of the above arguments as the theory of applied learning for VET both in Australia and globally. As illustrated in Figure 5 the theory of Competencivism is a facilitative theory framing DHM that is applied to both IVET and CVET with the concept of competence as its nucleus. Figure 5 – Four levels of the facilitative and applied learning theory of Competencivism The diagram illustrates various levels of facilitation that the theory of Competencivism addresses. 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