1
In search of the missing link in VET delivery
Homi Azemikhah
University of Adelaide
Abstract
In 2008, the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop)
argued that, globally, VET systems are still at a moot point and it is not clear as to
whether or not they have delivered sustainable employment to their participants,
even if they have undergone a period of continuous reform. The question is why,
after continuous reforming of the VET systems, around the world, for the last decade
or so, VET systems are still unable to deliver competencies that lead to sustainable
employment for their learners? One can propose the key question: “What is the
missing link?” This paper attempts to investigate the intricacies of the key question
by examining the interplay of various policies and research projects that were
undertaken across Europe and Australia in the delivery of vocational education and
training, in search of the answer.
Introduction
The European Union (EU) launched the Lisbon Strategy, at the turn of the
millennium, as a policy response to the challenges of globalisation and ageing
population. The objectives of the strategy were defined by the European Council for
Europe in order to become the most dynamic and competitive knowledge-based
economy in the world by 2010. In 2003, to adapt vocational education and training
(VET) to such a knowledge based economy in order to meet the requirements of the
21st century, the EU called for comprehensive approaches for the delivery of
vocational education:
The multi-dimensional character of the Lisbon strategy calls
for comprehensive approaches in which lifelong learning and
competence development should be integral elements of a
wider policy closely interrelated with the issues of economic
development and performance, employment promotion,
quality of work, social inclusion.(EU, 2003; European Union,
2003)
This research paper examines, firstly, to what extent the research has impacted the
European policies that led to changes shaping the VET systems throughout Europe in
the first decade of the new millennium as a response to challenges of globalization.
Secondly, it examines to what extent the elements of Lifelong Learning (LLL) and
competency development have been integrated globally by further policy
development, in both global and Australian context.
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Lifelong Learning
An overview of the international trends by Dr George Papadopoulos, former OECD
Deputy Director, has revealed that major international agencies have given top
priority to LLL (Kearns, McDonald, Candy, Knights and Papadopoulos, 1999). As
Bradley(2008:10) has hinted: in order to take account of training for those who are
already in the workplace, it is necessary to turn the rhetoric of lifelong learning into a
reality. Hence, it is important to understand what is meant by lifelong learning at the
outset. The following definition emerged from consultations that were undertaken
across Australia in 1996:
Lifelong learning is a continuously supportive process which
stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge,
values, skills and understanding they will require throughout their
lifetimes and to applying them with confidence, creativity and
enjoyment in all roles, circumstances and environments (Kearns et al,
1999).
Hence, both teaching and learning in the 21st century are going through
transformation by integrating Lifelong Learning and competency development as the
integral elements of the holistic approach for VET, resulting in the concept of
competence for life as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1 - Competence for life
Thus, the widening of the concept of
competence needs a 21st century
approach to learning, skills and
workforce development (Kearns,
2004) where the competencies that
need to be initially developed by
learners are also required to be
maintained throughout learners’ life. Therefore, the two emerging concepts of
competency development and LLL are inter-related. These have been labeled as
Initial Vocational Education and Training (IVET) and Continuing Vocational Education
and Training (CVET) (CEDEFOP, 2008).
Initial Vocational Education and Training (IVET)
Cedefop (2010:14) has defined IVET “as training undertaken typically after full-time
compulsory education to promote the acquisition of the necessary knowledge, skills
and competences for entry to an occupation or group of occupations”. To stay
competent for life, the individuals are required to also engage in the continuing
vocational education and training (CVET). The continuing vocational education and
training (CVET) can be broadly defined as “professional or vocational development
through education and training undertaken typically after one has completed initial
vocational education and training (IVET)”.
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During 2008, Cedefop developed a comparative analysis and study of IVET in Europe.
This work was carried out on the basis of twenty five country reports by ReferNet.
ReferNet is a network created by Cedefop in 2002 that is specialised in preparation
of country reports on vocational education and training (VET) systems for member
states, as well as Iceland and Norway.
Cedefop (2008) has pointed out that one way to improve competitiveness at the
global level is to increase participation in vocational education and training. For this
reason, vocational education and training (VET) is the focus of several European
policies. Cedefop (2008) has further emphasized that, given the current
socioeconomic circumstances in the context of globalization, countries around the
world need to achieve the following goals:


Firstly, a better qualified labour force for the restructuring, innovation as well
as transition to the knowledge based economy.
Secondly, to achieve such a qualified labour force they need an initial
vocational education and training system (IVET) which is a supplier of new
professionals (Cedefop, 2008).
In addition, it is necessary to improve the quality of IVET in order to increase its
attractiveness at the global level (Cedefop, 2008). To develop an understanding of
the main characteristics of initial vocational education (IVET) in Europe, Cedefop
undertook a comparative analysis of the VET systems of the following countries in
2008:
Belgium
Ireland
Cyprus
Austria
Finland
Czech Republic
Greece
Latvia
Poland
Sweden
Denmark
Spain
Lithuania
Portugal
United Kingdom
Germany
France
Hungary
Slovakia
Iceland
Estonia
Netherlands
Slovenia
Norway
Among the 25 countries that were reviewed for this study, three have already
adopted national qualifications frameworks (Ireland, France and the UK), and the
rest, except Cyprus, which remains sceptical, intend to introduce such a system in
the near future (Cedefop, 2008). The role of IVET in meeting these goals was set out
by the Lisbon strategy which also can be seen in the targets laid down by the
European Union, as follows:
(a) Countries should reduce the share of early school-leavers (aged 18 to 24) to 10%;
(b) A minimum of 85% of young people (aged 20-24) should have completed at least
Upper-secondary education;
(c) At least 12.5% of adults (aged 25-64) should participate in lifelong learning.
Given that the above objectives are important, the question is: What challenges is
the VET system facing globally to achieve them? In Zooming in on 2010 Cedefop
(2007) outlined that the type of challenges that the VET system will be facing globally
in the next twenty years are demographic and occupational. The demographic
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challenge is: dealing with decreasing participation of young people in upper, postsecondary, and tertiary education. The occupational challenges that are biased on
higher skilled jobs involve: training large number of people with low skills and
meeting current skill shortages.
There have been three important policy statements in response to the above
challenges that have shaped education at the EU level on the basis of the Lisbon
strategy (CEDEFOP, 2008): The Copenhagen declaration (European Commission,
2002); established the European dimension to vocational education and training
(VET) including recognition of qualifications and competences. The Maastricht
communiqué (European Commission, 2004) built upon Copenhagen to establish a
number of action plans at the national level, by increased investment to boost
flexibility in VET systems in meeting the needs of employers and assisting those most
vulnerable to changes in the labour market. The Helsinki communiqué (European
Commission, 2006) confirmed the aims of Maastricht and drew attention to the fact
that IVET must be an attractive option for young people.
The crucial points emphasized by the Helsinki communiqué (European Commission,
2006a) were to increase the attractiveness of IVET to young people across Europe
and to establish VET as a major part of lifelong learning. Therefore, combining
competency development through IVET and lifelong learning through CVET are the
necessary ingredients of lifelong success in developing competence and staying
competent for life. The question is how these objectives need to be achieved
globally.
The Helsinki communiqué (European Commission, 2006) provides a solution by
stating that, ‘European VET policies should promote high quality initial VET and
create conditions to improve the skills of those in the labour force through
continuing VET (CVET). Given that policies should engage all young people to acquire
skills and competences relevant to the labour market requirements and to their
future lives (European Commission, 2006:3) , the question is whether European
policies can address the needs of IVET systems in various European countries and
whether or not IVET systems are similar. Cedefop (2008) has reported that IVET
systems seem to have some similarities in their structure, content and output; in
particular, between groups of countries sharing a common approach to IVET, while
at the same time, they also demonstrate substantial variations. In such a context,
Cedefop (2008) has pointed out that European and national policies should tend to
ensure quality outcomes by facilitating comparability of the structures of IVET
systems. On this basis, both the structure and the content of IVET have gone through
major reforms in all countries in recent time. These reforms have been substantial in
former Eastern bloc countries that are adapting to the conditions of market
economies, while other European countries are reforming their IVET systems to be
more responsive to the demands of current and future labour-market (Cedefop,
2008). These trends require a brief look at the structure of IVET systems of these
countries.
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The Structure of IVET systems
Until relatively recently, the structure of IVET systems included only the upper
secondary level of schooling. But it is increasingly changing to include the lower
secondary level. At this level, both general and academic studies as well as general
vocational preparation are provided.
Hence, IVET is comprised of academic, vocational, apprenticeship and special
programs pathways. According to Cedefop (2008) countries such as Belgium, the
Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, France, Hungary, Austria, Poland,
Portugal, Slovenia and the UK, in addition to vocational studies or apprenticeship,
provide special programmes that aim at young people at risk of dropping out of the
IVET systems.
In Europe, at present, IVET is considered as an alternative pathway to the academic
route that contains many elements of an academic education which can, ultimately,
lead to tertiary level. In the countries, such as Germany, where the dual system is
well established, IVET has always combined practical experience in the workplace
with academic study provided in the classroom (Cedefop, 2008).
The IVET systems in various countries are different with respect to structure,
curricula, qualification/accreditation, transfer, progression and the starting point in
the larger education system. In addition, VET systems are not the same, in every
country, in terms of transfer which is to allow people to move between academic
and vocational streams or between the various modes of vocational provision.
Allowing individuals to attain higher levels of achievement through either of the
academic or vocational streams, is called progression and is achieved through
various possible routes through the education system, as the following diagram
illustrates.
Figure 2 – IVET Pathways (adopted from CEDEFOP
2008)
It is argued that facilitating learners to
develop competencies for employability in
both IVET and CVET systems require
pedagogical strategies. Cedefop, (2008) has
elaborated that the general challenge for
VET pedagogy is to adapt to the increased
international competition in providing
people with skills and competencies to
maintain their employability in the labour market. This, globally, requires a
workforce for VET that is equipped with pedagogical knowledge in addition to the
knowledge of the specific fields of delivery in which they are specialised.
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IVET, CVET and VET pedagogy
Cedefop (2008) has pointed out that pedagogical knowledge is the important
component of VET teacher training. Pedagogical knowledge enables teachers to
convey the knowledge that is pertinent to their field of expertise. This means that
both IVET and CVET systems are constructed in various countries on the assumption
that these systems are capable of such a task, leading to sustainable employment.
Despite this, Cedefop (2008) has elaborated that VET systems, globally, are still at
the moot point and it is not clear as to whether or not they have delivered
sustainable employment to their participants, even if they have undergone a period
of continuous reform. The question is why, after continuous reforming of the VET
systems, around the world, for the last decade or so, VET systems are still unable to
deliver competencies that lead to sustainable employment for their learners? What
is the missing link? This answer can be found in the Tomlinson Inquiry (2010) that
was undertaken in the UK. One of the most significant findings that emerged from
Tomlinson Inquiry (2010) was the importance of pedagogy in VET and that to simply
deliver vocational education and training, knowledge, per se, is not sufficient.
Rather, the teacher must be adept in how they communicate that knowledge. Data
collected by current PhD research at the University of Adelaide (Azemikhah, 2010:6)
confirms Tomlinson’s (2010) finding that the role of teachers is to communicate
knowledge effectively and DHM helps teachers to achieve this delivery objective
(Azemikhah, 2010). This suggests that problems in Australia may not be how much
knowledge is included in delivery, rather it is how pedagogically that knowledge is
communicated to the learners.
Tomlinson (2010) also emphasized that extended research into Vocational Pedagogy
should become a priority for the VET sector. One of Tomlinson’s (2010) findings was
that VET pedagogies remain at their infancy and relatively little research has been
undertaken into these pedagogies. Further the report highlighted that developing
pedagogical understanding is more complex than developing subject knowledge and
concluded that a theory of applied learning is needed to facilitate such pedagogical
understanding (Tomlinson, 2010). This research argues that the pedagogical
understanding and the know-how in communicating pedagogic knowledge in VET
delivery of expert knowledge is possible by application of the Double Heuristic
Method (DHM) that is framed by four pillars of confidence, independence, currency
and intelligence, as specified in the applied learning theory of Competencivism
(Azemikhah, 2008).
The pedagogical understanding of communicating that knowledge, in competency
development, according to OECD (2009), should aim at closing the large gulf
between learning and work (OECD, 2009). This means that the communication of
that knowledge should be facilitated in the closing of such a gap. However, the
difficulty of closing the gap between learning and work, as OECD (2009) has pointed
out, is that while Learning is often seen as abstract, classroom-based and academic,
the world of work is seen as concrete, with bosses and customers, profits and
machinery (OECD, 2009:10). On this basis, it is argued that these are two different
ethoses: there is the world of work as distinct from the world of learning. This is
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further confirmed by Bates (1996) who has described competency based pedagogy
as epiphenomenal, indicating deeper changes in social structures, that requires the
synchronization of the two historically separate spheres of work and education. This
synchronization (Bates, 1996) is not achieved by the question of how much
knowledge is needed, as is the case in Australia, but requires a theory of applied
learning (Tomlinson, 2010) to facilitate how to communicate that knowledge.
OECD (2009) has pointed out that the task of VET is to provide learning for jobs,
despite the fact that institutions providing VET have quite a different style from the
world of work, (OECD, 2009:10). This suggests two distinctive and broad ethoses
(the World of Work and the World of Learning), and it is necessary for the VET
pedagogy to function within these two ethoses in order to connect the abstract,
which deals with the mind, to the concrete, that deals with the hands, in the context
of competency development (IVET) and lifelong learning (CVET). The question is
where is the starting point of VET pedagogy for the teachers to teach and the
learners to begin their learning journey? The answer is provided by NQC (2011:6)
that asserts:
“… work based learning caters for all those whose natural learning style is to learn
from the concrete to the abstract (and to the theory), rather than the reverse. Such
people are a significant proportion of learners, who are not well catered for in
traditional teaching settings: schools and higher education tend to teach from the
abstract to the concrete” (NQC, 2011:6). Hence, it is clear that the starting point for
VET pedagogy is distinct from pedagogy applicable to schools and universities
suggesting two distinctive pedagogical approaches as follows:


Those in schools and universities whose starting point for learning is the
abstract and working their way to the concrete and that
Those mainly in VET whose starting point for learning is the concrete (the
Hands) and working their way to the abstract (the Mind).
Therefore, pedagogies in this manner can be broadly classified in two distinctive
types which seem to be moving in the opposite direction. These two pedagogies may
be called the Mind to Hands (M to H) pedagogy and the Hands to Mind (H to M)
pedagogy. Although the learners may fall into either of the above categories,
classifying them into the correct categories that they may belong to, may not be an
easy task. However, irrespective of whichever category a learner may belong to,
Azemikhah (2005) argues that he/she is required to interplay or inter-connect the
hands and mind in order to learn and develop competencies. In such a context, the
following questions need to be answered.


How is one to connect concrete (hands) to abstract (Mind) and theorizing the
interplay of the two?
How can these pedagogies be framed by a theory to facilitate learning in the
context of these two ethoses?
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It is argued that the answers to these questions lead to the theory of applied
learning. Thus, the global literature is explored in search of answers to the above
questions.
Communicating knowledge
As referred earlier, Tomlinson Inquiry (2010) has pointed out that developing
pedagogical understanding is more complex than developing subject knowledge. It is
argued, here, that such complexity in understanding VET pedagogy is more clearly
associated with connecting the abstract (the Mind) to the concrete (the hands).
Given that contemporary research in cognitive science states that understanding
complexity requires a clear mental model or schemata of some kind (Perkins and
Unger, 1999). On this basis Azemikhah (2006:5) in addressing these pedagogical
complexities has developed the Double Heuristic Method (DHM) as the mental
model for VET delivery. The DHM connects the concrete (the Hands) to the abstract
(the Mind) in communicating the knowledge as Tomlinson (2010) has emphasized as
the most important component of VET pedagogy.
Given that teachers must be adept at how they communicate the knowledge of a
given topic and its application (Tomlinson, 2010), the pedagogical complexity of VET
delivery is simplified by the interplay of the abstract (the Mind) and the concrete
(the Hands) in the course of communicating such knowledge (OECD, 2009:10).
Hence, Azemikhah (2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2010) concludes that such
communication has become possible in VET delivery by the Double Heuristic Method
(DHM).
It is argued here that communicating knowledge of a topic is dependent upon the
concepts, theories and methodologies by which we view the world (Gowin &
Alvarez, 2005). This means that the knowledge that needs to be communicated in
VET delivery should be clearly delineated in terms of, for example, concepts that are
mapped to the subject module or unit’s requirements. This stage is an important
stage, because any knowledge that needs to be communicated in VET delivery
should be clearly stated before being communicated to learners. After the
knowledge that needs to be communicated is clearly stated in terms of hands and
mind, it would then become possible, in the second stage, to communicate it in
terms of delivery methodologies and teaching strategies. When such knowledge is
pedagogically mapped, based on the concrete and abstract notions of knowledge, it
would then be possible for the teachers to communicate that knowledge
pedagogically. These stages are crucial, as when the knowledge is mapped on the
basis of the concrete and the abstract it becomes clear for the teachers to decipher
how to communicate that knowledge effectively and pedagogically, by means of
teaching strategies and methodologies.
Azemikhah (2006) has argued that while “‘V’ diagrams that were designed by Gowin
(Gowin and Alvarez, 2005) to decipher the complexities of construction of
knowledge and knowledge making”, the DHM was designed to assist teachers to
decipher the complexities of competencies and competency development in VET
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delivery. Deciphering these complexities is the prerequisite for communicating
knowledge in VET delivery. Without deciphering these complexities, any
communication in VET delivery would be meaningless and futile as it does not serve
its purpose. Facilitating such communication become possible and pedagogically
sound by matching the VET delivery to the learners’ learning style, discussed next,
turning the DHM into a pedagogic knowledge communication device.
Facilitating both pedagogies and styles
Given that facilitative teaching, as opposed to instructive teaching, is a concept
resulting from the shift of emphasis in the learning theory, it is now widely
recognised that teachers and trainers should become learning facilitators (CEDEFOP,
2009:120) . This suggests that when the interplay of the abstract (the Mind) and the
concrete (the Hands) is mapped, it should be communicated in a facilitative teaching
framework. This shift in emphasis in learning theory, from teaching to facilitative
teaching (CEDEFOP, 2009:120), suggests the need for a facilitation framework in
VET. It is argued that when assessed for competence in such facilitative framework,
the learners, in addition to the mastery of knowledge and skills, should be able to
demonstrate that they have become confident, independent, current and
competently intelligent. These are discussed in more detail under the heading of the
pillars of Competencivism in the research.
Given that the term ‘pedagogy’ is used by educators in various ways, such as
approaches to instruction, activities that impart skill (NQC, 2011:3), suggests that
teachers need facilitative pedagogies to impart skills to the learners. Pedagogical
strategies should aim at serving learners by aligning these strategies to the learners’
learning styles. Hence, it is crucial that VET pedagogy be facilitative and congruent
with the learners’ learning styles to facilitate learning. The NQC (2011:6) has pointed
out that VET learners’ natural learning style is to learn from the concrete to the
abstract (and to the theory). In this way, work-based (VET) learning style commences
from a practical engagement in the process (Hands) leading to abstraction and to
theory (using the mind), while learning at higher education and schools commences
from the abstract to the concrete, as the following diagram illustrates.
Figure 3 – MHM and HMH pedagogies
On this basis, VET pedagogy becomes
congruent with the learners’ learning
style. The matching of learning styles to
the method of teaching (pedagogy)
becomes meaningful in the learner
centered context of VET. This approach to pedagogy suggests two pedagogic cycles
of learning, HMH and MHM, as the above diagram illustrates.
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HMH pedagogy
The above arguments suggest that HMH pedagogy is applicable to VET and can be
implemented in three stages. In stage 1 of HMH, the learners are involved in some
activities that are practically done. In other words, the student has started practical
activities even in a very limited way or by observing an illustration. At stage 2 what
the learners have been practicing is linked by the teacher to relevant theory or
relevant content. In this stage, the student checks whether what he/she performed
in practice matches the relevant theories. The learners are matching relevant
concepts with the activities that they have practically completed. At stage 3, the
students return to the practice in a more refined way and continue further practice,
if needed, to improve or start from where they left off, achieving a better result.
MHM pedagogy
As the above diagram illustrates, in MHM the teacher starts from abstract (the Mind)
and delivers content to the learners, then the teacher moves to concrete (the Hands)
providing some activities. The teacher, then, returns to the abstract (the Mind) to
revisit the content or theory.
Whether HMH or MHM approach in pedagogy is used, it is important that the
learning cycle is repeated more than once to assist learners to master the tasks.
According to Cedefop (2009:80) some of the emerging approaches to VET pedagogy
are relying on harmonized theoretical and practical teaching roles, in which practical
delivery draws substantially on illustrations and context setting within another. This
suggests that Cedefop’s concept of context setting within another, supports the
argument for cycles of practicing tasks, in parallel to learning in classroom. Further,
both Stevenson (1994) and Billet (1993) have emphasized assessment of
performance in multiple settings which suggests an assessment may be applied after
each cycle of learning experience.
Figure 4 – Parallel learning in multiple
settings
NQC (2011) has elaborated that work based learning involves the deliberate creation
of workplace learning experiences such as a, b and c in Figure 4. As the above
diagram illustrates, it is usually taking place in parallel with learning in the classroom
which follows the pattern of concrete to abstract (C to A). According to NQC (2011)
this process is planned to create learning approaches that are plaited and
interwoven with each other. NQC (2011) has further emphasized that these learning
experiences may occur in authentic learning environments, such as in workplaces or
simulated work settings, but, in either case, are centered around a work-oriented
learning outcome. It is evident that while VET learners moving from concrete
(Hands) to abstract (Mind) they are using their Hands and Minds to achieve the
desired outcome. Azemikhah (2005) has asserted that maintaining the equilibrium of
hands and mind is vital in the learning process. The teacher role is to facilitate
11
learners to maintain such equilibrium throughout learning. Maintaining this
equilibrium leads to the achievement of the four pillars of Competencivism:
confidence, independence, currency and competency intelligence.
Conclusion
So, what is the missing link in VET delivery? It was established earlier that the two
trends of IVET and CVET have emerged from the notions of competency
development and lifelong learning (LLL). Pursuing these trends led to the realisation
that VET pedagogies are at their infancy. Given the above emerging trends, it is
clearly evident that IVET and CVET are interconnected yielding competence for life. It
is argued, here, that, for understanding of how to develop and maintain competence
for life through IVET and CVET globally a theoretical framework utilizing the HMH
and MHM pedagogies is required as the theory of applied vocational learning. This
theoretical framework is the missing link that is necessary to facilitate pedagogical
understanding that can be used in applied vocational learning. The application and
implementation of these pedagogies will transform VET delivery across the globe
into a workable, teachable and learnable format, via a theory that facilitates the
practice of teaching and learning in all the trades and professions and activities of
life. This is confirmed by Dr Mary Bousted, General Secretary of the Association of
Teachers and Lecturers in the UK who has stated:
“There is a clear need to develop a theory of applied learning…we do
not yet have one…Pedagogy is the most important thing for a teacher
to understand, it is much easier to develop subject knowledge than it
is to develop pedagogical understanding” (Tomlinson, 2010:42).
Given that a theory of applied learning is required, this research proposes the theory
of Competencivism on the basis of the above arguments as the theory of applied
learning for VET both in Australia and globally. As illustrated in Figure 5 the theory of
Competencivism is a facilitative theory framing DHM that is applied to both IVET and
CVET with the concept of competence as its nucleus.
Figure 5 – Four levels of the facilitative and
applied learning theory of Competencivism
The diagram illustrates various levels of
facilitation
that
the
theory
of
Competencivism addresses. It illustrates
how understanding at each level depends
on a clear understanding of the previous
level of the framework. It functions on the
basis of four pillars of Certainty (confidence), Independency (Autonomy), Currency
and intelligence.
12
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