361: England 1485-1660
2013
Monarchs and main
events, 1485-1660
• Tudors: 1485-1603
• Henry VII (1485-1509): (1)
reduced power of nobles; (2) built
up royal finances.
• Henry VIII (1509-47): (1) 6 wives;
Catherine of Aragon and Anne
Boleyn; (2) Reformation 1529-36;
pope (unable to grant divorce;
Charles V) loses power; church
subordinated to crown; (3)
Dissolution of the Monasteries
1536-40; (4) use of printed
propaganda.
The Tudor Rose, combining
the Red and White Roses
Monarchs and main
events
• Edward VI (1547-53): Somerset
(1547-49); Northumberland
(1550-3);
• Prayer Books 1549, 1552;
Protestantism;
• Economic problems;
debasement;
• Rebellions 1549.
• Lady Jane Grey.
• Mary (1553-8): Catholicism and
the pope restored.
Edward VI (1537/47-53)
Monarchs and main
events
• Mary 1553-8: marriage to Philip
II of Spain 1554; Wyatt’s
rebellion.
• Burning of heretics.
• Influenza 1556-8.
• Elizabeth (1558-1603);
• Protestantism restored 1559;
Prayer Book;
• Puritans
• Catholics: assassination; Spanish
Armada 1588
• Finance; Ireland; America –
Virginia; Drake Ralegh.
Monarchs and main
events
•
•
•
•
Stuarts: 1603-1714
James VI and I (1567/1603-1625):
Gunpowder Plot 1605;
Finance; worsening relations with
parliament; pro-Spanish foreign
policy.
• Charles I (1625-49): continued
financial and constitutional
problems; Arminianism and
Catholicism;
• Civil War (1642-6, 1648);
Monarchs and main
events
• 1647-9: the English Revolution;
• Issues: religious toleration (new
religious groups; Baptists;
Independents/
Congregationalists); how much
power should be returned to the
King? What role should the army
have, if any?
• 1649: execution of Charles I;
abolition of monarchy
• 1649-58: republican experiments;
Oliver Cromwell;
• 1658-60: Restoration; Charles II
(1660-85).
Economy and Society
•
•
•
•
Health, disease, and mortality:
Lack of hygiene;
Smallpox; Elizabeth 1562.
Typhoid; typhus (Prince Henry
1612)
• Plague: bubonic; septicemic;
pneumonic; rats and fleas; 1563,
1603, 1625, 1665.
• But population rose: England 2.5
to 5 million 1485-1630; London
50,000 to 500,000 1500-1700;
towns grew through immigration.
• Food prices rose fivefold in 1500s;
industrial prices doubled.
Henry, Prince of Wales,
1594-1612
Economy and Society
• Price rise 1500-1650: population
growth; import of silver from
Spanish America; debasement of
English coinage 1540s-50s.
• Growth of population:
unemployment/ vagrancy/
vagabondage.
• Agrarian economy.
• Importance of harvest; bad
harvests 1554-6, 1594-7, 1622,
1630.
Economy and Society
• Population rise: unemployment:
poverty; migration to towns (esp.
London);
• Population rise: rise of food prices;
good times for rich farmers;
• Farming innovations: water
meadows; crop rotation; new
crops (cabbages, turnips, onions;
potato and tobacco rare; Ralegh);
draining Fens.
• Enclosure (esp. of common land)
Economy and Society
• Enclosure: at first of arable land
for pasture (after Black Death
1348); then in 1500s for arable;
enclosure disliked by Tudor
governments (seen as causing
vagrancy and as reducing size of
population; Sir Thomas More;
Hugh Latimer).
• But by 1600s the population was
clearly too large (not too small):
emigration to Virginia etc. was
encouraged.
Economy and Society
• By 1650 governments stopped
worrying about enclosure; English
farming was producing more food
than ever before;
• Despite the great rise in population
1500-1650, England stopped
importing and started exporting grain;
• Scholarly debate – R.H. Tawney; Eric
Kerridge.
• Real wages rose in the late
seventeenth century; but population
did not rise; England escaped from the
Malthusian trap.
Industry
• Cloth production: a domestic
industry; clothiers.
• Slump in early 1620s: major
economic problems.
• Building
• Mining: silver in Wales; lead in
Derbyshire; tin in Cornwall; iron in
west Midlands; coal in North.
• Development of a national
economy: the growth of London
turned a group of regional
economies into a national one.
James I, Crown, 1624:
Welsh Plumes.
Social Structure
• Nobles; gentry; yeomen;
husbandmen; labourers; vagrants;
(and anomalous townsfolk);
• Nobles: duke/ duchess; marquess/
marchioness; earl/ countess;
viscount (-ess); baron (-ess);
• Gentry: baronets (1611); knights;
esquires; mere gentry; Members of
Parliament (MPs); Justices of the
Peace (JPs)
• 1600: 2% gentry; own 50% of land;
nobles own 15%; crown and church
own much of the rest.
Social Structure
• Nobles and Gentry;
•
•
•
•
•
Yeomen: 50 acres; £40 p.a.
Husbandmen: 30 acres; £15 p.a.
Labourers: about £9 p.a.
Vagabonds/ vagrants.
Women: status went with that of
husband/ father; Bess of Hardwick.
• Townsfolk: aldermen of London;
Thomas Sutton.
• Villeins (and Slaves): Pigge’s Case
1618.
Bess of Hardwick (Elizabeth
Hardwick/ Cavendish/ St Lee/
Talbot; 1527-1608)
Hardwick Hall (“More
Glass than Wall”)
Government
• No distinction between Executive and
Legislative Powers until 1640s;
• Monarch: held executive powers, with
Council: from 1530s this was the Privy
Council, which consisted of the heads of
bureaucratic departments and a few
others.
• The Privy Council had judicial functions,
as the Star Chamber and the Court of
Requests.
• Privy Council: executive powers: markets;
stewardships of royal land;
• Patron and client: the essence of political
reality.
Royal Prerogatives
• Summoning, proroguing, and
dissolving parliament;
• Impositions?
• Monopolies (Essex; Ralegh; Sir
Giles Mompesson)
• Purveyance;
• Wardship;
• Imprisonment without cause
shown.
• Proclamations.
Parliament
• Lords (bishops; abbots – to 1530s; lay
peers = dukes to barons).
• Commons (Knights of the shire;
citizens/ burgesses).
• Rotten/ pocket boroughs; Old Sarum.
• Parliament (with the monarch) made
(and repealed) laws and voted taxes;
• But could the monarch introduce
emergency measures (?taxation)
without the consent of parliament?
The Bureaucracy/ Civil
Service
• Executive orders were made by the
monarch; to be valid they had to be
sealed by the Great Seal (Chancery;
Lord Chancellor), Privy Seal (Lord
Privy Seal), or signet (Secretary).
• The Exchequer managed royal
finance, under the Treasurer and
Chancellor of the Exchequer.
• The Chancery was both a law court
(administering equity law) and an
adminstrative department.
The Bureaucracy/ Civil
Service
• The Exchequer collected taxes and
was a law court with jurisdiction over
royal finance.
• In addition to Chancery, there were
central courts dealing with royal
finance (Exchequer), criminal cases
(King’s/ Queen’s Bench), and civil
suits (Common Pleas).
• The judges of the central courts visited
the localities in Assizes, and there
enforced royal policy.
• The central bureaucracy was tiny by
modern standards.
Local Government and
the Church
• JPs (Justices of the Peace (sheriffs;
shire-reeves).
• Fivefold increase in number of JPs in
1500s;
• Their powers greatly increase;
• The monarch appoints JPs, and can
dismiss them at will;
• But the JPs serve without payment; if
they join together as a group to block
royal policy, the monarch can do little;
• Monarchs sometimes appoint clergy as
(especially reliable) JPs: this is
unpopular.
The Church and the
Clergy
• Church courts; heresy; moral offences;
marriage and divorce; last wills and
testaments; excommunication; public
penance.
• High Commission (from 1559; fines
and imprisons)
• 10,000 parishes; (Arch)bishoprics
(sees; dioceses); archdeaconries; rural
deaneries;
• Tithes; advowsons.
• Archbishop of Canterbury;
• Archbishop of York.
The House of York
Lancastrians/ Beauforts
Introducing the Tudors
Henry V m. Catherine m. Owen
Tudor
|
|
Henry VI
Edmund Tudor
m. Margaret Beaufort
|
Henry VII
The Wars of the Roses
• 1399: Henry IV (Lancaster) takes
power from Richard II, ignoring the
March claim – which becomes the
Yorkist claim;
• 1422: death of Henry IV’s son Henry V;
the infant Henry VI becomes King; he
has mental / personality problems;
• 1447: Henry VI marries the French
Princess Margaret of Anjou;
• 1449-53: Henry VI loses all English
land in France except Calais;
Wars of the Roses
• 1453: Margaret and Henry VI have a
son, Edward;
• 1450s: intermittent fighting
between Henry VI and Margaret on
the one hand, and Richard Duke of
York on the other;
• Both sides get support of nobles
with private armies; York supported
by the Nevilles; Henry by the
Percies.
• 1459: Margaret defeats and attaints
the Yorkists;
Wars of the Roses
• Attainder; the pros and cons;
• 1460-1: the Yorkists are back again;
Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury;
Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick,
the Kingmaker; Edward IV.
Wakefield (12/30/60).
• Edward IV (1442/61-70; 1471-83);
• Marries Elizabeth Woodville;
• Rebellion 1470-1: George, Duke of
Clarence; Warwick the Kingmaker;
Henry VI.
Edward IV (b. 1442; r.
1461-70, 1471-83)
Elizabeth Woodville
(1437-92)
Wars of the Roses
• 1471: rebellion crushed: the end of
the Kingmaker, Henry VI, and Prince
Edward.
• 1471-83: Edward IV in control;
• But 1483 he dies at 41;
• 1483: Edward V succeeds at 13; his
uncle Richard Duke of Gloucester is
appointed Lord Protector; Richard
takes the throne as Richard III;
• The Princes in the Tower (Edward
V; Richard Duke of York)
Richard III (1483-5)
• Richard III: an authoritative king;
ruled in the North under Edward
IV, and when he took the throne
used as his main agents the
people who had helped him
govern the North; “the Cat, the
Rat, and Lovell the Dog ruled all
England under the Hog”.
(Catesby, Ratclifffe, and Lord
Lovell);
• By taking the throne from
Edward V, Richard divided the
Yorkist cause;
Richard III (1452-85)
Discovered under a car park in Leicester (not far
from Bosworth) in 2012: the bones of Richard III
(or someone else).
The Fall of Richard III
• Many supporters of Edward IV
objected strongly to Richard taking
the throne from Edward’s son;
• Elizabeth Woodville, Edward V’s
mother, was especially angry;
• She contacted the exiled
Lancastrian Henry Tudor, Earl of
Richmond, and offered him a deal:
• Depose Richard, take the throne,
and marry Elizabeth of York
(Edward IV’s and Elizabeth
Woodville’s daughter).
Henry VII becomes King,
1485
• Richard III: revolt of Buckingham
1483.
• 1485: Henry Tudor lands in Wales;
moves to central England, picking
up Welsh support;
• Richard III summons nobles to
fight for him;
• Many fail to respond; Sir William
Stanley (brother-in law of Henry’s
mother Margaret Beaufort)
changes sides (with 3000 troops)
in the course of the battle of
Bosworth (8/22/85); Richard is
killed in battle.
Henry VII (1457-1509)
Elizabeth of York (14651503)
Margaret Beaufort (1443-1509):
Mother of Henry VII at 13, she
outlived him
Reasons for the Wars of
the Roses
• Rival claims: Henry deals with the
main one (Elizabeth of York) by
marrying her;
• Bastard feudalism: (indentured)
retainers; embracery; maintenance;
good lordship; worship; local
factions – Percy vs. Neville in North;
Lord Bonville and Earl of Wiltshire
vs. Earl of Devon in southwest;
Blounts vs. Longfords in
Derbyshire;
• But bastard feudalism is threatening
only when crown is too weak to
control nobles;
Reasons for the Wars of
the Roses
• Weakness of monarchy: Henry VI
had mental problems;
• Edward IV a strong King, but
weakened by rivals for the throne
– Henry VI; brother George, Duke
of Clarence;
• Henry VII had few credible rivals,
and so was able to reduce the
powers of the nobility; by
marrying Elizabeth he united the
roses and stabilized the
monarchy.
Henry VII (1485-1509)
• 1485: 28 years old, with little
•
•
•
•
experience or record;
“New Monarchy”; Renaissance;
humanism.
Establishing the Tudor dynasty:
Stoke 1487; Francis, Viscount
Lovell; John de la Pole, Earl of
Lincoln; Lambert Simnel.
Edmund de la Pole (Suffolk);
Richard de la Pole (d. 1525).
Hapsburgs (Philip the Handsome).
Medieval Style: Henry VII
Groat, 1498-9
Renaissance Style: Henry
VII Groat, 1504-5
Henry VII and the
Succession
• Edward, Earl of Warwick (d.
1499; son of George, Duke of
Clarence).
• Perkin Warbeck (d. 1499).
• Margaret Pole, Countess of
Salisbury (daughter of George,
Duke of Clarence; exec. 1541, at
68).
• Prince Arthur (1486-1502); Henry
(b. 1491).
• Jasper Tudor (d. 1495).
Henry VIII’s elder brother, Prince
Arthur (1486-1502; d. of
tuberculosis; sweating sickness?)
Henry VII and the Nobility
• Decline in number of nobles; Henry
rewards people with knighthood of the
garter rather than noble title;
• Henry breaks up marriage alliances
between wealthy noble families.
• A lack of “super-nobles”: the Kingmaker
died 1471, and the crown got his estates;
Percy, Earl of Northumberland d. 1489;
his heir was 11, and a ward of the crown;
the Stafford Duke of Buckingham was 7
in 1485;
• Thomas Grey, Marquess of Dorset;
• Bonds and recognisances.
Keeping the nobles in
order
• Advisers: humanism; Desiderius
Erasmus; Sir Thomas More; “virtus
vera nobilitas” – virtue is the true
nobility;
• Clergy: Cardinal John Morton,
Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord
Chancellor; Richard Foxe, Bishop of
Winchester and Lord Privy Seal.
• Lord Dinham (Treasurer);
• Gentry: Giles Daubeney (soldier);
Reginald Bray (finance); Richard
Empson, Edmund Dudley (legal and
financial experts).
Henry VII flanked by his
hated advisers Empson
and Dudley
Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the
Archbishops of Canterbury; this tower was built
by John Morton c. 1490; Thomas More lived
here as a young page boy.
The King and the Nobles
• Conditional reversal of attainders:
Thomas Howard (1443-1524): Lord
Treasurer, Earl of Surrey, and (1513)
Duke of Norfolk.
• Bonds and recognisances used to
prevent nobles having private armies;
Lord Burgavenny heavily fined for
breaking 1504 act on this.
• The risk of such tough policies was
rebellion (rioting in Yorkshire 1489;
Cornish rebellion 1497); but there
were few rival claimants to lead
rebellion.
Thomas Howard, Earl of
Surrey and Duke of
Norfolk (1443-1524)
Finance
• Chamber and Exchequer finance;
• Henry’s close personal interest in auditing
royal accounts.
• No siblings; King held both Yorkist and
Lancastrian estates; drew about 4 times
as much cash from land as Edward IV;
• Peace: customs duties increase about
20%
• Henry got some money from forced
loans/ benevolences, and from
parliament; but there was no parliament
1497-1504, or 1504-10; was he setting
England on the road to royal absolutism?
Henry VII: Foreign Policy
• Henry liked money, and peace;
• Spain: Ferdinand of Aragon; Isabella of
Castile;
• Treaty of Medina del Campo 1489;
• Marriage of Catherine of Aragon (b.
1485) to Arthur (b. 1486); but Arthur d.
1502.
• Joanna (Juana la Loca); Philip the
Handsome; Charles V; Hapsburgs.
• 1506 Philip agrees to the Malus
Intercursus.
• 1492: Boulogne; Charles VII of France;
• 1497: John Cabot sails to Newfoundland.
John Cabot, an Italian in the service of
Henry VII, and probably the first postViking European to explore mainland
North America
Henry VIII (1509-47)
• Henry in 1509: not quite 18;
flamboyant; extrovert; keen to
dissociate himself from his father’s
money-grubbing policies.
• He soon left the day-to-day
administration to Thomas Wolsey,
the most powerful man in England
other than the King between 1514
and 1529.
• Outline: (1) Britain in 1509; (2) early
years 1509-13; war with France; (3)
Wolsey; (4) Anne Boleyn and the fall
of Wolsey.
Henry VIII c. 1509
Britain in 1509
• No serious rivals for the throne; 1
duke (Edward Stafford; Buckingham);
1 marquess (Thomas Grey; Dorset)
• Land: gentry; nobles; church; crown;
Henry holds both Lancastrian and
Yorkist land;
• The borders (with Wales and
Scotland): disorderly: crown relies on
local notables to enforce royal
authority.
• Wales: not yet fully incorporated into
English administration.
Britain in 1509 (contd.)
• Scotland: independent, under James
IV (Stuart); James married Henry’s
sister Margaret; but Scotland was
traditionally allied to England’s old
enemy France (“the auld alliance”)
and war was common.
• Ireland: England controls Dublin and
“the Pale”; Cork; Waterford;
elsewhere native Irish and Anglo-Irish
are in charge; Fitzgeralds (Earls of
Kildare and Desmond); Butlers (Earls
of Ormond).
• Calais.
Ireland 1450
Henry VIII: Early Years –
1509-13
• New Policies: marriage to Catherine
of Aragon (b. 1485) 1509;
• Attainder of Richard Empson and
Edmund Dudley 1510.
• Foreign policy: war with France
1511;
• Ferdinand of Aragon; Niccolò
Machiavelli (The Prince).
• 1512: English army under Dorset
goes to southwest France;
expensive failure.
Catherine of Aragon, aged
about 18
An Older Catherine
Henry VIII c. 1520
Henry c. 1535
Henry c. 1540
Henry VIII: Early Years
(Contd.)
• 1513: Henry leads a new invasion of
France.
• 1513: battle of the Spurs; capture of
Tournai.
• 1513: Catherine regent in England;
Thomas Howard (Surrey) in charge of
reserve army; Flodden – great victory
over Scots (d. of James IV); Surrey
becomes Duke of Norfolk;
• 1514: deserted by Hapsburg allies,
Henry makes peace with France; Louis
XII marries Mary Tudor; he dies 1515,
and she remarries Charles Brandon
(Duke of Suffolk).
Thomas Wolsey (1470/11530)
• Wolsey: son of an Ipswich butcher;
graduated from Oxford at 15; became a
clergyman; 1507 a royal chaplain;
• 1509: Wolsey appointed to Henry VIII’s
Council; his real rise begins;
• 1513: Wolsey organizes the French
campaign;
• 1514: Wolsey becomes Bishop of
Lincoln and Bishop of Tournai;
• 1515: Archbishop of York; Cardinal;
Lord Chancellor;
• 1518: papal legate (for life 1524)
Wolsey
Wolsey (Contd.)
• Mistress (Joan?) Lark and two
children (for whom he found jobs in
the church);
• Nepotism; simony; pluralism.
• Entertaining; building; Hampton
Court
• Domestic policy: Chancery; Star
Chamber; Court of Requests;
strained relations with parliament;
Hunne’s Case 1514-15 (Richard
Hunne);
• Amicable Grant 1525.
Hampton Court
Wolsey: Foreign Policy
• Wolsey’s views: humanism
(Erasmus; More); pro-papal;
balance of power;
• 1518 Treaty of London: idea of
perpetual peace through negotiated
settlements;
• But whatever Wolsey’s views, Henry
continued to have military
ambitions;
• He was offered alliances by both
Charles V and Francis I of France;
• 1522: Norfolk in Brittany;
Charles V (1500-58)
Francis I (1494-1547)
Foreign Policy and the Fall
of Wolsey
• 1523: Suffolk heads towards Paris; revolt of
Charles de Bourbon.
• 1525: Pavia; 1526: England switches sides;
• 1526: Henry is attracted to Anne Boleyn; he
and she want Wolsey to get pope to annul
his existing marriage; Wolsey fails, and falls;
• 1527: Sack of Rome; Pope Clement VII in
power of Charles V;
• 1529: Ladies’ Peace of Cambrai;
• 1529: fall of Wolsey; he heads north to York;
• 1530: summoned to London, Wolsey dies at
Leicester Abbey.
“The King’s Great
Matter”: divorce from
Catherine of Aragon
• Mary Boleyn; Elizabeth Blount; Henry
Fitzroy (b. 1519; Duke of Richmond
1525; d. 1536).
• Anne Boleyn (c. 1500-36): daughter
of Sir Thomas Boleyn (courtier and
diplomat, and for some years
ambassador to France, where Anne
spent much of her youth); Anne’s
mother was the Duke of Norfolk’s
daughter;
• Back in England from France, the heir
of the Percy Earl of Northumberland
wooed Anne, but Henry got Wolsey
to break up the relationship;
Anne Boleyn
Henry hated writing – but
wrote many love letters
to Anne Boleyn
“The King’s Great
Matter”: divorce from
Catherine of Aragon
(Contd.)
• By 1527 Henry wanted an annulment of
his marriage to Catherine, his brother’s
widow;
• Leviticus 20:21: “And if a man shall take
his brother's wife, it is an unclean thing:
he hath uncovered his brother's
nakedness: they shall be childless”;
• Deuteronomy 25:5: “If brethren dwell
together, and one of them die, and have
no child, the wife of the dead shall not
marry without unto a stranger: her
husbands brother shall go in unto her,
and take her to him to wife”
“The King’s Great
Matter”: divorce from
Catherine of Aragon
(Contd.)
• God’s law of nature; impediments in
canon law;
• Julius II and the dispensation of 1504;
was Arthur’s marriage to Catherine
consummated?
• 1528-9: commission of Lorenzo
Campeggio;
• 1529: Sir Thomas Boleyn becomes Earl
of Wiltshire and Lord Privy Seal;
• Norfolk (Thomas Howard; son of the
victor of Flodden) Lord Treasurer; he
supports religious conservatism while
Boleyns favor new Protestant
movement.
Thomas Howard, Third
Duke of Norfolk (14731554)
The Henrician
Reformation
• Wolsey’s clients desert him:
Stephen Gardiner; Thomas
Cromwell;
• 1529: Sir Thomas More
Chancellor.
• 1532: death of William Warham;
1533 Thomas Cranmer becomes
Archbishop of Canterbury; he
grants the divorce; Henry marries
Anne; September 1533 Elizabeth
born.
• 1529-36: Reformation Parliament.
The Fall of Anne Boleyn
• Anne failed to produce a male heir, and
began to irritate Henry;
• At court, the pro-Spanish “Aragonese
faction” were hostile to Protestants,
whom she favored;
• She and Cromwell were Protestant
sympathizers (though she was not a full
Protestant); she fell out with him over
foreign policy (she wanted alliance with
France, he with Spain) and over what to
do with the land of dissolved monasteries
(she wanted it spent on charity); she
launched a bitter attack on him;
• Early in 1536 Catherine of Aragon died.
The Fall of Anne Boleyn
(Contd.)
• With Catherine out of the way,
Henry could again ally with
Charles V – provided Anne was
removed;
• Anne’s opponents introduced
Henry to Jane Seymour (b.
1508/9);
• 1536: Anne’s marriage to Henry
annulled (because of his prior
relationship with Mary Boleyn);
Anne convicted of treason and
incest, and beheaded.
Jane Seymour (1508/9-37)
Anne Boleyn’s Fall: the
Aftermath
• Cromwell and the Aragonese
faction struggled for power after
Anne’s fall;
• Cromwell became Lord Privy Seal;
• Aragonese leaders Thomas Lord
Darcy and John Lord Hussey rebel
in Pilgrimage of Grace 1536.
• Henry marries Jane Seymour
1536; she dies 1537, shortly after
giving birth to Edward VI
A Digression on the later
Wives
• (Christina of Denmark)
• Anne of Cleves (1515-57): 1540; Holbein;
Schmakaldic League; fall of Cromwell.
• Katherine Howard (1518/24-42): 1540-1:
niece of the Duke of Norfolk; had sexual
liaison before marriage and did not tell
Henry about them; also may have
committed adultery; beheaded 1542.
Cranmer was active in brining her down.
• Katherine Parr (1512-48): 1543-7: a
widow; skilled in managing Henry, she
outlived him, and came to no harm
despite efforts of religious conservatives.
Anne of Cleves
Katherine Howard
Katherine Parr
The Reformation
Parliament
1529-36
• 1529: special legal exemptions taken
from clergy
• 1530: the clergy subjected to the
crown and fined for taking orders
from the pope rather than the King.
• About 1532: shift from blackmailing
the pope into granting the divorce, to
dismantling his powers; Cromwell’s
work?
• 1532: the clergy recognize the King,
not the pope, as their head.
Parliament
•
•
•
•
1532: More resigns as Chancellor.
1532: Act suspending Annates.
1533: Act in restraint of Appeals.
1534: Act terminating Annates; Acts
of Supremacy; Dispensations;
Succession; First Fruits and Tenths.
• 1535: execution of More and John
Fisher.
• 1535: Valor Ecclesiasticus.
• 1536, 1539-40: Acts dissolving the
monasteries.
Key Personalities
• Thomas Cromwell (?1485-1540); son
of a Putney brewer and ironmonger;
traveled on Continent; perhaps
fought for French in Italy; and
Machiavelli?:
• Back in England; a lawyer; 1523 in
Parliament; then an administrator
working for Wolsey and dissolving
small monasteries;
• Switched to royal service 1529; 1534
secretary; 1535 vicegerent in
spirituals; 1536 Lord Privy Seal.
Cautiously pro-Protestant.
Personalities (Contd.)
• Cromwell: Baron Cromwell of
Wimbledon 1536; Earl of Essex
1540; beheaded 1540.
• Marsilius of Padua’s Defensor Pacis,
1535.
• Christopher St German.
• Cromwell: the enforcer and chief
propagandist of the Henrician
Reformation; pragmatism or
principle?
• Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556):
Cambridge scholar; priest; loyal
royal servant.
Thomas Cromwell
Personalities (Contd.)
• Cranmer: commissioned by Henry to
tour Continent and obtain declarations
from universities in favor of divorce;
• In Germany married niece of Lutheran
Reformer Andreas Osiander; in England
Cranmer sometimes hid her in a box
and in 1539 sent her back when Henry
started enforcing laws against married
clergy.
• 1533: Cranmer Archbishop of
Canterbury.
• Cranmer cautiously pro-Protestant, and
openly so under Edward VI, when he led
the Reformation.
Thomas Cranmer
Personalities (Contd.)
• Cranmer fell when Mary became
Queen in 1553; she blamed him for
her parents’ divorce;
• He was convicted of heresy and
sentenced to death; he recanted, but
the sentence went ahead anyway;
while burning he put his hand in the
flames, saying “this hand hath
offended”.
• Stephen Gardiner (1495/8-1555): a
clothmaker’s son; Cambridge
graduate;
• Clergyman; church lawyer (civil and
canon law); administrator in Wolsey’s
service;
Personalities (Contd.)
• Gardiner: 1528 on embassy to
Rome; King’s secretary 1529; 1531
Bishop of Winchester;
• 1534 replaced by Cromwell as
secretary, but remains an important
adviser;
• 1535: De Vera Obedientia.
• Backs Royal Supremacy but
otherwise wants little change in
church/ religion;
• Leading member (with Howards) of
conservative faction in Henry’s final
years;
Personalities (Contd.)
• Gardiner: spent much of Edward
VI’s reign in prison;
• In power again under Mary; Lord
Chancellor 1553-5.
• Sir (Saint) Thomas More (1478-
1535): son of a judge; Oxford
educated; lawyer; famous
humanist scholar; advocated
church reform; 1504 MP; 1510
under-sheriff of London; 1523
Speaker of Commons;
Sir (Saint) Thomas More
Personalities (Contd.)
• More: 1515 enters royal service
(diplomat; administrator)
• 1516: Utopia;
• 1529: Lord Chancellor; resigned 1532
as he could not support break with
Rome; would not swear that Anne
Boleyn was lawful Queen;
• 1535: convicted of treason on
perjured evidence of Sir Richard Rich;
beheaded. (Rich changed sides as
needed; his descendants became
Earls of Warwick).
The Reformation:
Antecedents and Religion
• The State of the Late Medieval Church:
• Lack of education among priests; many
little different from local villagers; glebe;
• Clergy largely graduates by 1600;
• Abuses: simony; nepotism; pluralism;
• Indulgences; treasury of merits;
supererogatory merit; saints.
• Low monastic standards (exceptions:
Franciscan Observants; Carthusians;
Bridgettine nuns);
• But lay religious guilds flourish; wills give
church cash.
Saints (Fra Angelico, c. 1424):
they store up Merit which the
Pope can allocate to others.
Lollardy
• John Wycliffe (d. 1384);
• Lollards: reject transubstantiation;
denounce wealth and power of
clergy; approve clerical marriage;
want vernacular bible;
• Influential 1380-90s (at Oxford and
at court); decline from 1410s;
• Survive in some areas
(Buckinghamshire; Bristol; London);
numbers uncertain;
• Influenced Lutherans and other
Protestants; Hus.
Lollard Bible (late 1300s;
Start of John’s Gospel)
Humanism
• Reacts against medieval scholasticism
(St Thomas Aquinas; William of
Ockham; theology; philosophical
precision; angels on the head of a pin);
• Humanism: Italy: merchants;
republics; eloquence; practicality; ad
fontes (back to the sources); reestablishing ancient texts of classics
and bible;
• Erasmus; More; John Colet; Christian
humanism: return to primitive
Christianity; against corruption and
over-emphasis on theology (as
opposed to ethics).
John Colet (1467-1519): Dean of
St Paul’s (and Founder of St Paul’s
School) (by Holbein)
Lutheranism and
Protestantism
• Martin Luther 1517; attack on
indulgences; 95 theses; no
Purgatory; Scripture alone (not
tradition) gives us religious truths;
justification by faith alone
(solifidianism); (antinomianism?);
reduction in power of clergy
(priesthood of all believers);
• No papal power (/pope Antichrist);
clergy can marry; communion in
both kinds for laity; rejection of
transubstantiation; rejection of
monasticism; 2 sacraments
(baptism; eucharist).
Lutheranism and Other
Forms of Protestantism
• Luther’s ideas licensed states to
extend power over church and take
its wealth;
• Lutheranism spread in Germany,
Scandinavia, and elsewhere;
• 1529: Zwinglians (Zürich;
Switzerland) separated from
Lutherans, rejecting
consubstantiation.
• 1530s: Calvinism: Geneva;
predestination.
• Reconciliation attempts: Martin
Bucer.
Protestantism in England
• 1521: Henry VIII publishes
Assertio Septem Sacramentorum
against Luther; pope gives him
title of Defender of the Faith.
• Late 1510s-20s: Lutheran books
reach England; Lutherans at
White Horse Tavern, Cambridge;
William Tyndale; Robert Barnes;
Miles Coverdale; Hugh Latimer;
• Persecution of Protestants under
Wolsey;
William Tyndale (c. 14941536)
Tyndale’s New Testament,
first published in full at
Worms in 1526
Protestantism in England
(Contd.)
• Tyndale went to Germany; in
1525-6 he there published his
translation of the New
Testament; 1528 published The
Obedience of a Christian Man
(Anne Boleyn gave Henry a copy;
he liked it, but had doubts about
many Protestant views);
• 1536: Tyndale executed in
Netherlands;
• Cambridge graduates burned in
England: Thomas Bilney 1531;
John Frith 1533;
Protestantism in England
(Contd.)
• Thomas Garret took Lutheranism from
Cambridge to Oxford in the 1520s;
harassed by Wolsey, he renounced
Protestantism (for a while);
• 1530s: at time Henry negotiated with
Protestant powers abroad (esp. the
Schmalkaldic League), most of all
when Charles V and Francis I looked
like they might ally; he was then
tolerant towards Protestants in
England;
• This policy culminated, and ended,
with the Cleves fiasco 1540.
Erastianism and
anticlericalism
• Contests between common
lawyers and church lawyers for
cases and fees;
• Sanctuary; benefit of clergy;
• Erastianism; Thomas Erastus;
Swiss cities; Heidelberg;
• Hunne’s Case 1514-15;
• Doubts about how prevalent
anticlericalism was; J. J.
Scarisbrick.
Religious Narrative
• Nicholas Shaxton; Hugh Latimer;
Edward Fox: bishops inclining to
Protestantism 1530s;
• Other supporters of a move
towards Protestantism: Katherine
Parr; Edward Seymour; Cranmer;
(Sir Richard Rich; Thomas Audley);
• On the conservative side: Norfolk;
Gardiner; Cuthbert Tunstall (Bishop
of Durham);
• Foreign affairs: Charles V and
Francis I increasingly close, esp.
1538-40.
Hugh Latimer (c. 1485-1555):
resigned the Bishopric of Worcester
1539; a famous preacher
Religious Narrative
(Contd.)
• Overtures to Lutherans
•
•
•
•
(Schmalkaldic League): 1531:
Henry sends Barnes to woo
Luther;
1536: ambiguous Ten Articles;
1536, 1538 Injunctions
(iconoclasm; 1538 -parish
registers);
1537: Bishops’ Book;
1538: ambiguous Thirteen
Articles
Religious Narrative
(Contd.)
• 1539-40: sharp shift away from doing
deals with Lutherans:
• 1539: unambiguous Six Articles;
resignation of Shaxton and Latimer;
• 1540: burning of Barnes, Garret;
• 1543: King’s Book: conservative.
• But Katherine Parr, Cranmer, etc.
survive at court; Edward VI’s tutors
(Richard Cox; Sir John Cheke; Sir
Anthony Cook) bring him up as a
Protestant.
Dissolution of the
Monasteries 1536-40
• Monasticism in England as old a
Christianity; expansion 1100s
(Cistercians and other orders);
slows with introduction of friars
1200s; Black death 1348 reduces
numbers;
• Continued decline in 1500s: 150036 – 12,000 to 10,000; nuns 2,000
to 1,600.
• Average number of monks nuns in a
monastic house 12; but some had
far fewer;
• Worldly outlook of many monks/
nuns.
Dissolution of the
Monasteries (Contd.)
• 3 small orders maintain high
standards: Carthusians;
Franciscan Observants;
Bridgettine nuns.
• Valor Ecclesiasticus 1535;
Cromwell vicegerent in
spirituals;
• Motives for dissolution: defense
costs; avoiding taxation through
parliament; humanist and
Lutheran criticisms; German and
Scandinavian examples;
Rievaulx Abbey, North
Yorkshire; dissolved 1538
Dissolution of the
Monasteries (Contd.)
• Court of Augmentations set up
1536 to administer monastic land;
• Pensions paid to ex-monks/ -nuns;
amount depends on your status,
and wealth of monastery; half the
pensions in arrears by 1552;
• Monasteries educated and gave
charity to local laity: how much was
lost?
• Crown increased landholdings at
least threefold;
Dissolution of the
Monasteries (Contd.)
• Crown’s annual income doubled; it
gained great amounts of jewels,
treasure, artwork, etc.;
• Crown also gained large number of
tithes and advowsons;
• Henry VIII promised 13 new
bishoprics; in fact created 6
(Peterborough; Chester; Gloucester;
Oxford; Bristol; Westminster; last
closed 1550);
• He also founded Trinity College,
Cambridge, and a number of schools.
Trinity College,
Cambridge; its motto is
Virtus Vera Nobilitas
Consequences of the
Dissolution
• Henry went back to war with 1542; to pay for
war he sold off monastic land;
• Sometimes locals of merchants bought the
land: William Stumpe; Malmesbury Abbey;
(also nobles; groups of less rich);
• But mostly it was the gentry who bought it;
• This contributed to the “rise of the gentry”;
they became wealthier and more politically
ambitious;
• In addition to land, they gained tithes
(impropriated tithes; impropriations) and
advowsons – increasing their local control of
the church.
Malmesbury Abbey; it
became a parish church
The English Bible
• Tyndale’s New Testament 1525-6
(Germany);
• 1535: Miles Coverdale’s Bible; a better
version was the
• 1537 Matthew Bible (Tyndale’s
translation, edited and completed by his
friend John Rogers, though published
under name of Thomas Matthew);
Cranmer and Cromwell got Henry to
back it;
• 1539: Henry ordered every parish to
buy the Great Bible (revised version of
Matthew Bible).
• But 1543 parliament restricted Bible
reading to the elite.
Henry VIII, Cranmer, and
Cromwell, on the Great
Bible (1539)
The Henrician
Reformation: Scholarly
Interpretations
• Protestant interpretation (A. G.
Dickens): Protestantism would
have spread anyway, and
eventually would have taken over
as England’s main religion; Henry
mostly opposed Protestantism,
though he failed in the long term;
• Catholic interpretation (J. J.
Scarisbrick; Eamon Duffy):
Protestantism did not spread
much in Henry’s reign; it would
have spread
The Henrician
Reformation: Scholarly
Interpretations (Contd.)
• even less if it had not been for Henry’s
divorce; the Catholic church was
popular; the break with Rome was
forced on the people by a greedy,
lustful, and cruel king; it was bitterly
opposed (e.g. in the Pilgrimage of
Grace);
• But: the Pilgrimage was only partly
about religion; there was not much
opposition in parliament or among the
bishops; there may not have been all
that much Protestantism, but there was
a lot of apathy. Successful opposition
could work: Amicable Grant 1525.
The 1530s: Administrative and
Social Reforms: a Tudor
Revolution in Government?
• State centralization; suppression of
independence and privileges of locals
and the church; G.R. Elton.
• 1536: destruction of liberties and
franchises in e.g. Chester and Ely;
• 1540: sanctuary ended for serious
crimes (abolished altogether 1624);
• 1536-40: Cromwell’s agent Bishop
Rowland Lee incorporates Wales into
English administrative system.
The Tudor Revolution in
Government
• 1536; Calais reorganized; it gets
parliamentary representation.
• 1537: after Pilgrimage of Grace, Cromwell
strengthens Council of the North, and
rules North through it rather than local
nobles.
• New institutions; Court of Wards 1540.
• 1534-6: institutionalization of Privy
Council; 1540 it gets a clerk who keeps its
records.
• 1530s: Secretaryship becomes a major
office (later secretaries include William
Cecil; Sir Francis Walsingham).
A Tudor Revolution in
Government?
• Subordination of the realm to statute
law: church lost independence; canon
law was subjected to law made by
parliament; so was case-based common
law in the Dissolution of the
Monasteries;
• An unanswered question: who was
superior – the monarch alone, or the
monarch-in-parliament?
• Perhaps not a revolution; government
remained personal rather than
bureaucratic; the Privy Council
expanded again in size; many new
institutions were soon abolished.
Cromwell: Social and
Economic Reforms
• The problem of enclosure,
especially for pasture: 1534 Act
limits number of sheep you can
own to 2,400; 1536 Act against
enclosure; enforcement limited;
• Laws limiting prices also hard to
enforce;
• 1536 poor relief scheme: a local
rate to pay for health care of sick
poor, and provide work for
healthy poor; not passed, but was
basis for 1601 Poor Law.
A Vagrant (Vagabond)
being whipped
The Last Years of Henry
VIII: 1540-7
• Rapidly shifting court faction:
• Conservatives: Katherine
Howard; Norfolk; Henry Howard
(Surrey); Gardiner;
• Radicals: Katherine Parr;
Cranmer; Edward Seymour
(Hertford); John Dudley (Lisle);
• War: with Scotland 1542; with
France 1544;
• Solway Moss 1542; Boulogne
1544.
• The “rough wooing” of Mary
Queen of Scots.
James V of Scotland
(1512-42; Henry VIII’s
Nephew)
Henry VIII’s Last Years
• Interpreting the Wars of the
1540s: a return to the Middle
Ages and the Hundred Years War,
or Cromwellian centralization,
intended to take over Scotland?
• The wars led to high taxation, the
sale of monastic land, and from
1544 the debasement of the
coinage (“Old Coppernose”);
• Economic problems resulted.
Testoon (Shilling) of “Old
Coppernose” – Henry VIII
First Midterm: Example
Questions (NOT the
actual questions)
• SECTION 1: MULTIPLE CHOICE (total
10%)
• In the blue book, write down the
question letter, and the number which
corresponds with the right answer
(e.g. if you think Thomas Wolsey is the
right answer to C, write C1; N.B. there
is only one right answer in each case.)
• A. Protestants did not believe that: (1)
baptism is a sacrament; (2)
justification is by faith alone; (3) many
people go to Purgatory when they die;
(4) the Bible is the only source of true
religion.
Example Questions:
Multiple Choice
B. Which of the following rulers was
not a contemporary of Henry
VIII? (1) Charles V; (2) Francis I;
(3) Frederick V; (4) James V.
C. Which of the following Thomases
was NOT executed by Henry VIII
or his children?: (1) Thomas
Wolsey; (2) Thomas Cromwell; (3)
Thomas More; (4) Thomas
Cranmer.
Example Questions:
Multiple Choice
D. Thomas Wolsey held all of these
titles except: (1) Archbishop of
Canterbury; (2) Bishop of Lincoln;
(3) papal legate; (4) Lord
Chancellor.
E. This family held the Earldoms of
Desmond and Kildare in Ireland:
(1) Kennedy; (2) Fitzgerald; (3)
O’Reilly; (4) Donnelly.
Example Questions: Essay
1. Why was Henry VII rather feared
than loved?
2. What foreign policies did England
pursue between 1485 and 1547?
How and why did those policies
change in the course of the
period?
3. What can be said for and against
the idea that the Henrician
Reformation was an unpopular
movement, forced on a reluctant
people by a cruel, lustful, and
greedy king?
Edward VI (1537/47-53)
• Edward: “boy tyrant”; vigorous
Protestant.
• Struggle for power between the
factions in Henry’s last years:
• Seymour; Dudley; Paget;
• Howards; Gardiner;
• Anne Askew 1546; Rich; Thomas
Wriothesley;
• Gardiner attacks Katherine Parr; refuses
to exchange land with Henry; the
Howard arms;
• Radicals gain control of Privy Chamber
and Henry’s dry stamp.
Thomas Wriothesley, Earl
of Southampton (150550)
Edward VI: Succession
• Henry’s will: a forgery?: succession:
Edward, Mary, Elizabeth, Greys;
• Will excluded Gardiner from Edward’s
regency Council; Henry wanted Council to
rule, and factions to share power on it;
• But Seymour soon took power for
himself, bribing Councillors with royal
land and with titles; Dudley became Earl
of Warwick; conservative Wriothesley
became Earl of Southampton.
• Seymour becomes Duke of Somerset and
Lord Protector.
Edward Seymour, Duke of
Somerset (c. 1500-52)
Claimants: Stuarts and
Greys
Jane Grey (1537-54)
The Rule of Somerset
• Traditional reputation as a wise
and well-meaning leader, ahead
of his time;
• Supported the anti-enclosure
policies of the economic thinker
John Hales;
• A problem brother: Thomas
(Baron Seymour of Sudeley) had
ambitions: he married Katherine
Parr (she died in childbirth 1548);
he also wooed Princess Elizabeth;
in 1549 he was executed.
Thomas Seymour (c.
1509-1549)
Somerset (Contd.)
• Despite interest in
social/economic reform,
Somerset in fact concentrated on
policies that were economically
harmful;
• The Scottish war continued; at
first it went well, with an
important English victory at
Pinkie 1547; but the result was
that France sent an army of
occupation to Scotland in 1548
and took Mary Queen of Scots to
France to marry the Dauphin
Francis.
Francis II (1544-60) and
Mary (1542-87) in 155960
Somerset (Contd.)
• Renewed war in France; French
besiege Boulogne.
• Somerset continues debasement of
coinage to pay for war.
• Religion: moderate Protestantism:
• 1547: abolition of heresy laws, and of
Act of the Six Articles; printing of
bible approved;
• 1547: Battle of Mühlberg; flight to
England of Protestant leaders.
Somerset (Contd.)
• 1547 Homilies;
• 1547: abolition of chantries.
• 1549: priests allowed to marry; Act
of Uniformity; Prayer Book –
moderately Protestant –
doctrinally ambiguous,
conservative on ceremonies; in
English.
• Economy: 1540s: agricultural
prices rise nearly 100%; industrial
prices 70%; wages nearly halve in
real terms;
Somerset (Contd.)
• Economic problems resulted
from government spending on
war, and especially from
debasement;
• Sir Thomas Smith, A Discourse of
the Commonweal, blames
debasement for inflation.
• But Somerset and John Hales
blamed enclosures; Somerset
held out hopes of abolishing
enclosures.
Somerset (Contd.)
• Somerset could not get
parliament to abolish enclosures
(and that would not have solved
the country’s economic
problems);
• April 1549: rioting in many parts
of southern England;
• West Country (Prayer Book)
rebellion June 10: joined by
priests and gentry; economic and
conservative religious issues;
siege of Exeter; defeat August 17.
Somerset (Contd.):
Rebellion 1549
• 8 July 1549: Norfolk Rebellion;
economics and enclosure;
religion unimportant; Robert Ket
(Kett) (Ket’s Rebellion); rebels
oppose grasping gentry (not
crown); Mousehold Heath;
artillery; Norwich;
• August 27 1549: Dudley
(Warwick) defeats Ket and the
rebels; 3,000 rebels killed in
battle; 50-350 executed
afterwards, including Ket.
Results of the Rebellions
of 1549: the Fall of
Somerset
• Somerset’s incompetence in
dealing with the rebellions led
the Council to agree on removing
him from power; radicals and
conservatives joined forces on
this;
• Somerset fled with the King to
Windsor; the Council took over
government in London; Somerset
had to return and surrender.
• Southampton and conservatives
wanted (1) no further
reformation; (2) regency for
Mary;
Northumberland
• But Warwick became increasingly
close to Edward, and won over
moderates, taking control of
Council;
• February 1550: Warwick Lord
President of the Council; October
1551 he becomes Duke of
Northumberland.
• Somerset restored to Council (but
executed 1552).
• John Dudley (1504-53): son of
Edmund Dudley;
John Dudley, Duke of
Northumberland (1504-
53)
Northumberland (Contd.)
• Edmund Dudley attainted;
attainder reversed 1512; John
worked his way up in royal
service;
• Northumberland: (unfair?)
reputation as grasping,
ambitious, self-seeking (unlike
the principled, idealistic
Somerset);
• Administration: governed with
Council (though 1552 Somerset
executed and Paget forced to
retire; Southampton had died
1550)
Northumberland (Contd.)
• Administration: talent for
promoting able advisers: William
Cecil (served Somerset, but
increasingly important under
Northumberland); William Paulet,
Marquess of Winchester (Treasurer
1550-72); Sir Thomas Smith; Sir
Walter Mildmay; Sir Thomas
Gresham.
• Lord Lieutenants; deputy
lieutenants.
• Financial reforms: planned by
Mildmay and Paulet 1552; enforced
1554.
William Paulet, Marquess
of Winchester (1474/51572)
Northumberland (Contd.)
• Coinage: large issue of fine silver
coins 1551 (but debased coins not
called in);
• Religion: Prayer Book of 1552:
Protestant in doctrine but retains
old ceremonies (Cranmer; Martin
Bucer); (Andrew Perne – 1556,
1560).
• 1550: John Hooper; vestments;
vestiarian controversy;
puritanism; John Knox.
• 1553: 42 Articles; Calvinism and
Zwinglianism;
Northumberland (Contd.)
• 42 Articles: hostile to radicals/
Anabaptists;
• 1550: burning as heretics of a
woman who denied the humanity
of Christ, and of a man who
denied Christ’s divinity;
• Project for canon law reform:
Reformatio Legum;
• Social and economic matters:
recoinage lessens inflation;
sweating sickness;
Northumberland (Contd.)
• Foreign policy: 1550: Boulogne
surrendered to French; truce with
Scots; 1551 – end of Scottish war;
Edward betrothed to French
Princess Elisabeth.
• The succession: tuberculosis;
Edward’s will – excludes Mary
and Elizabeth from succession,
giving it to Lady Jane Grey; May
1553 Jane marries
Northumberland’s son Guildford
Dudley;
The Fall of
Northumberland
• 1553: July 6: death of Edward; the
Council keeps it secret until
• July 10: proclamation of Jane in London;
• But Mary proclaims herself in Norfolk;
• Northumberland marches to Cambridge;
few support him; July 20 he proclaims
Mary;
• August 22: Northumberland executed.
• Jane and Guildford imprisoned;
• Gardiner and Norfolk out of prison and
back in power; Paget back from
retirement.
Mary I (“Bloody Mary”):
1553-8
• Mary b. 1516; she was 37 when she
became Queen;
• She was Catholic, and determined to
restore the faith, and to perpetuate it
in England;
• By marrying and having children; or
wiping out Protestants.
• Outline: (1) marriage; (2) religion; (3)
social and economic questions; (4)
Wyatt’s rebellion; (5) foreign policy;
(6) administration; (7) a mid-Tudor
Crisis?
Mary I (1516-58)
Mary: Marriage (Contd.)
• Possible partners: Edward
Courtenay, Earl of Devonshire
(suggested by Gardiner); Reginald
Pole;
• But Mary was interested in her
cousin Charles V’s son Philip (b.
1527; heir to Spain, of which he
became King 1556);
• French ambassador Antoine de
Noailles lobbied against the
marriage; parliament petitioned
against it;
Mary’s Marriage
• The Marriage suited Spanish foreign
policy (rather than Philip’s
inclinations);
• 1554 it went ahead; Gardiner and
Paget succeeded in restricting Philip’s
power over appointments and foreign
policy;
• 1554: July: Philip came to England to
marry, and stayed for a year; then he
left for two years;
• In 1554 Mary thought she was
pregnant, but eventually realized she
was not, and that she would probably
never be.
Shilling of Philip and Mary
Mary: Religion
• Mary made clear her desire to restore
the Catholic faith;
• 800 Protestants (“Marian exiles”) fled
from England; John Jewel in Zürich (with
Heinrich Bullinger); John Ponet in
Strassburg; Richard Cox and John Knox
in Frankfurt – Coxians and Knoxians,
split on ceremonies; Anthony Gilby,
Christopher Goodman, and Knox in
Geneva (Calvin).
• Resistance theory: Ponet; Goodman;
Knox;
• Knox’s First Blast of the Trumpet against
the Monstrous Regiment of Women,
1558.
John Ponet, A Shorte
Treatise of Politike Power,
[Strassburg] 1556
Mary: Religion (Contd.)
• Paget and many lay people would
have been happy with return to last
years of Henry VIII; Gardiner, bishops,
and Mary wanted full reestablishment of papal power;
• 1553: Parliament abolished Edward
VI’s laws on religion;
• 1554: Pole arrives as papal legate
(Cardinal 1555; Archbishop of
Canterbury 1556);
• 1555: Parliament abolished religious
laws made since 1529; pope restored
to power in England.
Cardinal Reginald Pole (1500-58;
grandson of Edward IV’s brother
George Duke of Clarence)
Mary: Religion and Heresy
• 1555: Parliament revived the laws
against heresy;
• But Parliament did not restore
monastic land to the monks and
nuns.
• 1555-8: burning of nearly 300
heretics;
• They include John Rogers (1555);
Bishops John Hooper (1555);
Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley
(1555); Cranmer (1556).
The Burning of Cranmer,
March 21 1556
Mary: Burning Heretics
• Gardiner and Philip II blamed for
burning of heretics – unfairly
(Gardiner did encourage burning of
a few Protestant leaders, but tipped
other off to let them escape, and d.
1555);
• Mary and Pole responsible for the
policy;
• Locals responsible for its
enforcement, which varied greatly;
1 burned in Yorkshire; 1 in
Southwest; 0 in Norwich; 112 in
diocese of London (where Edmund
Bonner was Bishop).
Mary, Heresy, and
Religion
• Mary destroyed Protestants, but did
not do much to build Catholicism;
• But a church council of 1555-6 did
plan to set up a seminary in each
bishopric;
• And Mary did appoint bishops who
were committed to Catholicism and
the pope (contrast Henry VIII);
• Ultimate failure of Mary’s religious
policy partly result of luck – she had
much less time than Elizabeth.
Social and Economic
Problems
• Bad harvests 1555-6; influenza 1556-8;
• But on the other hand: the expedition of
Richard Chancellor (and also at first Sir
Hugh Willoughby) reached Archangel in
Russia, and then went to Moscow to
meet Ivan IV (the Terrible); 1555
foundation of Muscovy Company;
• Expanded trade with Guinea; Morocco;
• 1558 Book of Rates;
• Plans made to withdraw debased coins;
• No rebellions based on economic
grievances (cf. 1549);
Northern Russia
Sir Thomas Wyatt’s
Rebellion 1554
• January/ February 1554: rebellion in Kent
of Sir Thomas Wyatt (to prevent Spanish
marriage, put Elizabeth on the throne, and
marry her to Courtenay); advanced to
London, but was defeated there;
• Rebellions elsewhere failed to materialize;
• Wyatt was executed; Mary also now
executed Jane Grey and her husband;
• Many Protestants joined the rebellion,
though Mary played this down;
• Mary unsuccessfully tried to implicate
Elizabeth; Philip protected Elizabeth.
Sir Thomas Wyatt (c.
1521-54)
Foreign Policy
• The English Council prevented
Philip taking England into his war
against France;
• But in 1557 Thomas Stafford
(grandson of the Duke of
Buckingham executed in 1521, and
a co-rebel of Wyatt in 1554)
attacked and briefly captured
Scarborough with French aid;
• England entered the war; and in
1558 lost Calais;
• 1559: Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis.
Administration
• Mary keeps about half of
Edward’s Council; leading
advisers include Paulet and
Paget; Council expands; Mary
also relies on advice of Charles
V’s ambassador Simon Renard;
• 1554: reform of financial
institutions;
• 1557: recoinage plans (enforced
1559-61).
• Philip improves the navy – which
later defeats him.
A Mid-Tudor Crisis?
• Economic and social problems;
• Rapid religious change – Catholicism
without the pope (Henry);
Protestantism (Edward); Catholicism
with the pope (Mary); Protestantism
(Elizabeth);
• Short (and weak?) reigns; a minor and
two women;
• Rebellion;
• But local and central institutions
survived unscathed; rebellions were
suppressed; religious change may
largely have been met with apathy.
Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
• Achievements: England secured
against Spanish invasion; cultural
success – Marlowe, Spenser,
Shakespeare; overseas expansion –
Drake, Ralegh.
• Overview: (1) Early years: 1558-67:
marriage and succession; war in
Scotland; moderate religious policy.
• (2) Middle years: 1568-85: worsening
relations with Spain; increasing
religious radicalism;
• (3) Later years: 1585-1603: war with
Spain.
Princess Elizabeth, 1546
Elizabeth I; milled
sixpence of 1562
Queen Elizabeth, c. 1565
Queen Elizabeth, 1572; by
Nicholas Hilliard
Queen Elizabeth, 1575
A Halfcrown of Elizabeth,
1601
Early Years: 1558-67.
• Marriage and succession:
• Smallpox 1562. Mary Queen of
Scots. Catherine Grey. Robert
Dudley, Earl of Leicester. William
Cecil.
• Cateau-Cambrésis. Henry II.
Francis II (1559-60).
• Revolution in Scotland 1559-60.
Knox.
• 1562: Le Havre; Huguenots.
Robert Dudley, Earl of
Leicester (1532-88), c.
1564
William Cecil, Baron
Burghley (1520-98)
Early Years: Religion
• The Elizabethan Settlement; via
media; 1559 Acts of Supremacy
and Uniformity; 1563 Thirty-Nine
Articles. Prayer Book 1559.
• Ceremonies. Vestments. Puritans.
• Recusants.
• Fine of a shilling a week for nonattendance at church.
• No purge of Catholics from
administration.
Middle Years: 1568-85:
the Problem of Mary
Queen of Scots
• 1565: Mary marries Henry Stuart
•
•
•
•
•
Lord Darnley.
David Riccio (Rizzio): murdered
1566.
1567: murder of Darnley; Mary
marries James Hepburn, Earl of
Bothwell; the Casket Letters.
James Stewart, Earl of Moray
(1531/2-70).
1567: civil war; deposition of Mary;
James VI King;
1568: Mary in England.
Mary Queen of Scots c.
1559
Mary Queen of Scots
(1542-87)
Henry Stuart, Lord
Darnley (1545-67)
James Stewart, Earl of
Moray (1531/2-70): Halfbrother (and rival) of Mary
James Hepburn, Earl of
Bothwell (1534/5-78)
King James VI (1566/71625)
Middle Years: 1568-85
• The Revolt of the Northern Earls
(Northumberland; Westmorland)
1569;
• Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk
(exec. 1572).
• Pope Pius V issues Regnans in Excelsis
1570.
• Increasingly severe laws against
Catholics from 1570.
• William Allen; Douai College 1568.
• Dutch Revolt; worsening relations
with Spain.
• Puritanism; the Presbyterian
movement (from 1570). Thomas
Cartwright. Calvin. Beza.
Later Years: 1585-1603
• War with Spain from 1585; William
the Silent (d. 1584); America; Virginia
1585; Armada 1588 (1596; 1597);
Netherlands (Leicester 1585);
Ireland.
• The destruction of the Presbyterian
movement, early 1590s; John
Whitgift; Richard Bancroft.
• Conquest of Ireland.
• Economic crisis 1594-7.
• The Revolt of Robert Devereux, Earl
of Essex, 1601. Sire Robert Cecil.
William Cecil.
Elizabethan Government:
Advisers
• Bureaucrats: William Cecil (1571
Baron Burghley); Sir Francis
Walsingham; Sir Robert Cecil; Sir
Nicholas Bacon; Sir Francis Bacon;
(Sir Anthony Cooke); Sir Francis
Knollys; Sir Walter Mildmay
(Emmanuel College, Cambridge,
1584; Puritanism).
• Favorites: Robert Dudley (Earl of
Leicester); (Lettice Knollys; widow of
Walter Devereux, Earl of Essex);
Robert Devereux (Essex); Sir
Christopher Hatton; Sir Walter
Ralegh.
Sir Christopher Hatton (c.
1540-91)
Sir Walter Ralegh (15541618); c. 1585
Robert Devereux, Earl of
Essex (1565-1601)
Administration
• Continuity: Paulet; parish clergy
accept Settlement (except about
175); (but Bishops refuse it – except
Anthony Kitchin of Llandaff);
• Privy Council: factions: Cecil;
Leicester/ Essex; foreign policy;
religion; great increase in business;
officials hire informal assistants
(Cecils and Sir Michael Hickes;
Walsingham’s spies);
• Financial problems mount in war;
debt of £300k by 1603.
Elizabethan Government
• Securing obedience: court ceremonial;
Homilies; sermons; and especially
• Patronage; which Elizabeth distributed even-
•
•
•
•
•
handedly, until Essex’s Revolt in 1601.
The Cecils and Leicester/ Essex headed the
main patronage networks.
Local government: commissions of the
peace (J.P.s); subsidy; sewers; etc.
Lord Lieutenant; deputy lieutenants; militia;
Quarter sessions; Assizes.
Hundreds (high constable); parishes
(constable)
Elizabethan Parliaments
• Parliament sat for a total of 3
years out of 45; on average, it sat
for 10 weeks;
• The Queen could summon,
prorogue, and dissolve it.
• It passed 438 public and private
acts.
• Committees; increasingly full
Journal of each House; diaries;
“separates” (speeches);
• Functions: legislation; advice;
taxation
Elizabeth I in Parliament
Robes c. 1585-90.
Elizabeth meets
Parliament
Some Parliaments
• Are the causes of the Civil War
visible in Elizabeth’s reign?
• 1559: religious Settlement;
Marian exiles.
• 1563-6: marriage and succession;
(Sir John Neale); Thomas Norton;
Cecil.
• 1571 (and later, to 1606): laws
against Catholics; 1581 £20 a
month recusancy fines; 1584-5
treason to be a priest.
Some More Parliaments
• 1576: the Commons reject Peter
Wentworth’s proposal for free speech.
• 1587: Parliament rejects Sir Anthony
Cope’s Prresbyterian proposals; 1593
harsh legislation against Protestant
nonconformity.
• 1597-8, 1601: Poor Law; legislation on
the economy; attack on royal grants of
monopolies; 1601 Elizabeth’s “Golden
Speech”.
• 400 MPs 1559; 462 1601; increasing
education – over 50% have university or
Inns of Court training by 1601.
The Church
• Advowsons; tithes; impropriations;
ordination;
• Queen appoints bishops and deans;
she bullies them, and sometimes
takes their property; she rarely
appoints clergy as advisers
(Whitgift the only clerical Privy
Councillor).
• John Jewel: Apologia Anglicana
1562;
• A more up-beat defense of the
church: Richard Hooker, The Laws
of Ecclesiastical Polity 1594-7.
• Things indifferent/ adiaphora; via
media.
John Whitgift, Archbishop
of Canterbury (d. 1604)
Richard Hooker’s Of the
Lawes of Ecclkesiastical
Politie, 1666.
The Economy
• Population rise: 3 to 4+ million
1558-1603.
• Prices: food prices rise 75%;
industrial prices 45%.
• Poverty; vagrancy; Poor Laws
1598, 1601.
• Statute of Artificers 1563 (to halt
social change and freeze prices).
• Poverty/ vagrancy remained
problems; but there were no
rebellions even in 1594-7.
Elizabethan Puritanism
• Vestments; surplice; ceremonies
(bowing at the name of Jesus;
kneeling to receive communion;
sign of the cross in batpism; ring
in marriage; bells)
• Overview: (1) to 1570; (2) 1570s
and 80s – Presbyterianism;
Grindal and prophesyings; the
“classical” movement; (3) 1580
on: Separatism; (4) 1580s-90s –
attack on Puritanism; (5)
Puritanism in 1603.
Puritanism to 1570
• Ceremonies and vestments
• John Hooper;
• Geneva; Calvin; Beza; Institutes
1559 (Norton);
• Zürich; Bullinger; John Jewel;
Edmund Grindal (John Foxe; Acts
and Monuments);
• Matthew Parker; Advertisements
1566;
• The failure of puritans to get the
ceremonies abolished fueled
Presbyterianism.
From John Foxe’s Acts and
Monuments / Book of
Martyrs
Foxe: Acts and
Monuments Online, at
Sheffield University.
• http://www.johnfoxe.org/
• Welcome to The Acts and
Monuments Online [TAMO], John
Foxe’s protestant martyrology.You can
browse and compare the unabridged
texts of the four editions of this
massive work published in John Foxe’s
lifetime (1563, 1570, 1576, 1583).
Each edition changed significantly as
Foxe sought to incorporate new
material, answer his critics, and adjust
its polemical force to the needs of the
moment.
Presbyterianism (from
1570)
• 1570: Cambridge lectures of
Thomas Cartwright; (John
Whitgift); John Field;
• 1572: Admonition to Parliament;
1574: Walter Travers;
• Edmund Grindal and the
prophesyings: an attempt to
compromise;
• 1576: Elizabeth orders Grindal to
suppress prophesyings; he refuses;
1577 she suspends him from
Archbishopric of Canterbury (he d.
1583)
Thomas Cartwright (d.
1603): Presbyterian
Theorist
Presbyterianism: for and
against
• “Classical” movement; (a “classis” was an
assembly representing several
congregations);
• Some leading politicians protected
Presbyterians, and were convinced of their
godliness (Leicester; Walsingham);
• Presbyterians wanted the church ruled by
elected pastors and elders; the elders
would (likely) be gentry; but they were
temporary officers – the pastors would
really rule;
• The election of pastors would undermine
the gentry’s advowsons; Parliament did not
support Presbyterianism.
• Clergy who hoped for advancement under
the bishops did not want them abolished.
Separatism
• Presbyterianism was one reaction
to the church’s continued use of
popish ceremonies;
• Another was Separatism/
Brownism;
• 1580: Robert Browne separates,
and with Robert Harrison founds
a congregation in Norwich and
then in Middelburg (Zeeland);
• 1593: Henry Barrow and John
Greenwood, founders of a
separatist congregation in
London, are executed.
The Attack on
Presbyterians/ Puritans
1580-90s
• 1583: Whitgift Archbishop of Canterbury;
three articles; High Commission; 1583-4
suspension of 200-300 ministers;
• 1588: death of Field, Leicester; defeat of
Armada; 1590 death of Walsingham;
• 1588-9: the Martin Marprelate tracts
• 1590 arrest of Cartwright and 8 other
Presbyterian leaders.
• 1591: William Hacket.
• Propaganda campaign: Richard Bancroft;
Richard Hooker.
Richard Bancroft (d. 1610)
Puritanism in 1603
• Presbyterianism ended as an
organized movement by the mid1590s (perhaps replaced by
sabbatarianism);
• But moderate puritanism
survived;
• Moderate puritans accepted
bishops; hoped for further
reforms on ceremonies; held that
the pope is Antichrist; stressed
predestination (following Calvin;
as did Whitgift and Bancroft)
Elizabethan Catholics
• Survival or revival? John Bossy;
Christopher Haigh (regional
variations; Lancashire). CounterReformation; Council of Trent
(1545-63); Catholicism
increasingly an upper class
religion by 1600s; church papists;
• 1558-70: little harsh persecution;
Elizabeth leaves Catholicism to
die out; Paulet; Edmund
Plowden; Louvain; William Allen;
1568 Allen founds Douai College.
Cardinal William Allen (d.
1594)
Catholics 1570-88
• 1568: Mary Queen of Scots in
England; Dutch Revolt against
Spain
• 1569: revolt of the Northern
Earls;
• 1570: Regnans in Excelsis;
execution of John Felton;
• 1570s-80s: anti-Catholic
legislation;
• 1574: first missionary priests
arrive in England (300 by 1603;
750 1640).
Catholics 1570-88
(Contd.)
• 1579: foundation of the English College
at Rome (later colleges: Valladolid 1589;
St Omer 1596);
• Both secular and regular priests arrive;
regulars include Benedictines, but
especially
• 1580 Jesuits; first arrivals were Edmund
Campion and Robert Parsons (/Persons);
Campion exec. 1581; Saint 1970;
• Parsons: b. 1546; Balliol; bursar; puritan;
then converted; in exile 1574; Jesuit
1575; left England 1581; in Spain; then
(1597-1610) in Rome as head of English
College.
Edmund Campion, S. J. (d.
1581)
Robert Persons/ Parsons,
S.J. (d. 1610)
Elizabethan Catholicism
• Jesuits: about 20 in 1603
• Plots, one of which got Mary
Queen of Scots executed in 1587;
• Around 195 Catholics executed as
traitors under Elizabeth;
• Circulating missions; gentry
houses; priest holes;
• 1588: Armada, but no Catholic
rising:
Were Catholics Loyal to
Elizabeth?
• Why did Catholics not rise against
Elizabeth in 1588? Allen (An
Admonition to the Nobility and
People of England, 1588), Parsons
and others supported Spain; the
pope had deposed the Queen;
• Some leading Catholics were
executed in 1588; others were
disarmed;
• Some Catholics made
declarations of loyalty to
Elizabeth;
Allen’s Admonition, 1588
Catholic Loyalty (Contd.)
• But can Catholic assertions of loyalty be
taken at face value? The trial of the Jesuit
Robert Southwell in 1595 revealed that
some Catholics practiced equivocation
and mental reservation;
• Which looked to many people like lying,
and was certainly deception; “The New
Art of Lying: equivocation, Mental
Reservation, and casuistry” 1988.
• "Truth, Deception and Lies: Lessons from
the Casuistic Tradition“ Tijdschrift voor
Filosofie 2006;
• Martin Stone Plagiarism; Catholic
University, Leuven (Louvain), 2010.
Catholicism 1588-1603
• There were reasons for being
suspicious of Catholics; but there
were also people who really
enjoyed persecuting them; e.g.
Richard Topcliffe (d. 1604);
• After 1588 the Catholic threat
receded, and executions became
rarer, replaced by exile/
imprisonment;
• Divisions at Wisbech and more
generally, between Jesuits/
Ignatians, and Appellants;
Catholics: to 1603 and
beyond
• Parsons, A Conference about the
Next Succession to the Crowne of
Ingland, 1595.
• George Blackwell (Archpriest);
Henry Garnet (Superior of Jesuits);
• William Bishop – becomes Bishop
1623.
• Bancroft and the Appellants;
• Survival/ revival?
• Gunpowder Plot 1605;
Assassination of Henry III and Henry
IV of France (1589; 1610).
Parsons’s Conference
about the Next Succession
Elizabeth: Exploration and
Expansion
• Sebastian Cabot; Sir Hugh
Willoughby and Richard
Chancellor 1553; Muscovy
Company 1555;
• Northwest Passage: Sir Martin
Frobisher 1576-8 – reaches
Greenland; John Davis – 1585-7 –
gets still further North;
• In 1583 Davis’s neighbor and
associate Sir Humphrey Gilbert
explored Newfoundland, but
never got back;
More Elizabethan
Expansion
• Gilbert’s half-brother (they had
the same mother) was Sir Walter
Ralegh;
• Ralegh funded the Virginia
expedition of 1585; Sir Richard
Grenville transported the
colonists (to Roanoke Island);
more joined in 1587; but by 1590
the colony had disappeared;
• Richard Hakluyt published
accounts of English voyages and
exploration.
Richard Hakluyt, The
Principall Navigations,
1589
Elizabethan Expansion
(Contd.)
• 1581: Levant Company;
• 1585: Barbary Company;
• 1583-91: the adventures of Ralph
Fitch;
• 1600: East India Company (first
voyage 1601);
• Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates
the globe 1577-80;
• Sir John Hawkins;
Sir Francis Drake
circumnavigates the
Globe, 1577-80
Drake’s Circumnavigation: a
(near-)contemporary French
version
Elizabethan Foreign Policy
• Foreign Policy: Treaty of Berwick 1586;
• Ireland: English expansion 1540s: Anthony
St Leger; Thomas Cusack;
• 1557: Westward expansion from the Pale;
• 1560s-70s; Sir Henry Sidney; rebellion
1579-83 (aided by Spain and the pope) of
Gerald Fitzgerald, Earl of Desmond;
• 1594-1603: the Nine Years’ War (revolt of
Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone;
• Essex; Charles Blount, Baron Mountjoy;
• Catholicism and Irish Nationalism.
Hugh O’Neill, Earl of
Tyrone (d. 1616)
Charles Blount, Baron
Mountjoy and Earl of
Devonshire (1563-1606)
History 361: 2013
Stuarts
The Early Stuart Period
and the Coming of Civil
War, 1603-42
• The Whig Interpretation of
History; Marxism; revisionism;
post-revisionism;
• James I (1603-25); George
Buchanan; Divine Right of
Kings;
• The Age of Salisbury (Robert
Cecil): 1603-12: Howards;
Northampton; Thomas
Sackville (Dorset); Robert Carr
(Earl of Somerset); finance
(Bate’s Case 1606; impositions
1608); puritans (Hampton
Court 1604); Catholics
(Gunpowder Plot 1605).
George Buchanan (1506-82); his
best-selling history of Scotland was
first published in 1582.
1603-42: Overview
• Salisbury: Great Contract 1610;
• The Rule of the Howards (and
Carr) 1612-18: pro-Spanish/
Catholic;
• Frances Howard; Robert
Devereux, Earl of Essex, and
the Divorce Case 1613; the
Addled Parliament 1614; Sir
Thomas Overbury;
• George Abbot (Archbishop of
Canterbury); William Herbert
(Earl of Pembroke); George
Villiers (Buckingham);
rd
William Herbert, 3 Earl
of Pembroke (1580-1630)
1603-42: Overview
(Contd.)
• 1618-28: the Age of
Buckingham; Frederick V and
the Thirty Years’ War; the
Spanish Match; war with Spain
1625; Charles I 1625-49; the
Forced Loan 1626-7;
Parliament 1628 – the Petition
of Right; Arminianism; William
Laud;
• Assassination of Buckingham
1628; Parliament 1629 –
tonnage and poundage;
Arminianism;
• 1629-40: the Personal Rule
(Eleven Years’ Tyranny):
Thomas Wentworth
(Strafford); “Thorough”; Star
Chamber and High
Commission;
1603-42: Overview
(Contd.)
• Ship Money;
• 1637: Scottish Prayer Book;
• 1638-40: the Scottish National
Covenant and the Bishops’
Wars;
• 1640 (Spring): Short
Parliament; (Fall) Long
Parliament;
• 1641-2: reforming legislation;
Triennial Act (1641); splits on
constitutional, social, and
religious issues; Irish Revolt
(October 1641)
James VI and I
(1566/7/1603-1625): The
King
• Succession: a rival: Arabella
(Arbella) Stuart (1575-1615;
niece of Darnley; greatgranddaughter of Margaret
Tudor; imprisoned 1610 after
secretly marrying William
Seymour, grandson of
Catherine Grey, and greatgrandson of Protector
Somerset).
• Personality: physique; accent;
learning; Divine Right of Kings;
books; union; Conrad Vorstius
1612.
King James VI and I, c.
1604
Arbella or Arabella Stuart (1575-1615); her
father was Darnley’s brother and a grandson of
Margaret Tudor; her mother was Elizabeth
Cavendish (daughter of Bess of Hardwick)
William Seymour (1587-1660); his
father was the son of Catherine Grey
and of a son of Protector Somerset;
he married Arbella Stuart in 1610.
Catholics, the Gunpowder
Plot, and the Oath of
Allegiance
• Recusancy fines; earlier
promises to Catholics;
Balmerino; Peace with Spain
1604;
• Robert Catesby; Thomas Percy;
Guy (Guido) Fawkes; (Henry
Percy – the Wizard Earl);
Princess Elizabeth; William
Parker, Baron Monteagle; 5th
November 1605; Henry
Garnet; Edward Oldcorne;
• 1606: new laws; Oath of
Allegiance; controversy;
Bellarmine, Suárez
• Catholic threat recedes.
The Gunpowder Plotters,
including Guido (Guy)
Fawkes
Guy/ Guido Fawkes has given his
name to a day (5 November) and
a Blog
Puritans and the
Hampton Court
Conference
•
•
•
•
•
•
1603: Millenary petition.
1604: Hampton Court Conference;
John Reynolds; “No Bishop, No King”;
A new Bible – the King James Version 1611;
1604 canons; Bancroft enforces conformity;
But the Gunpowder Plot helps unite
Protestants; and George Abbot (Archbishop of
Canterbury from 1611) is tolerant to puritans;
• A few people left the church after 1604: Henry
Jacob and the semi-separatists/ Independents/
Congregationalists; John Smith the se-baptist
and the General Baptists (and later Particular
Baptists)
The standard account of
the Hampton Court
Conference, 1604.
Salisbury, Finance, and
Parliament
• Peace boosts trade (and
customs – tonnage and
poundage); but debt rises £600,000 by 1608 (when
Salisbury becomes Treasurer
•
•
•
•
•
on Dorset’s death);
Bate’s Case 1606; impositions
1608;
1610: the Great Contract;
wardship; purveyance;
1604: Goodwin v. Fortescue;
Apology;
1604-7: Union; 1608: Calvin’s
Case;
1610: Commons condemns
impositions.
Robert Cecil (1563-1612);
Earl of Salisbury 1605;
here in 1602.
The Age of the Howards
1612-18
• Philip Herbert; William Herbert
(Earl of Pembroke);
• Sir Robert Carr (Viscount
Rochester; Earl of Somerset);
Sir Thomas Overbury;
• Howards: Charles
(Nottingham; Admiral); Henry
(Northampton 1604; Lord Privy
Seal); Thomas (Suffolk 1603;
Lord Chamberlain; Treasurer);
Thomas (Arundel 1604; Privy
Councillor); William Knollys; Sir
Thomas Lake.
Sir Robert Carr, Earl of
Somerset (1585/6-1645)
Frances Howard,
Countess of Essex/
Somerset (1590-1632)
Henry Howard, Earl of Northampton
(1540-1614) (son of Henry VIII’s Earl
of Surrey; great-uncle of Frances)
Sir Thomas Overbury
(1581-1613)
Robert Devereux, Third
Earl of Essex (1591-1646)
The Essex Divorce Case
1613
• Robert Devereux, Third Earl of
Essex (1591-1646); Frances
Howard (daughter of Suffolk;
1590-1632); married in 1606; he
then went touring the Continent;
in 1609 he returned to court and
found she had befriended Carr;
then he got smallpox, which did
not help his looks;
• 1613: the Divorce: impotence and
witchcraft; Lancelot Andrewes;
Richard Neile; George Abbot; John
King; John Buckeridge; Thomas
Bilson (his son: Sir Nullity Bilson).
The Addled Parliament
1614
• Royal debt: £160,000 1610;
£680,000 1614.
• 1614: Sir Henry Neville and Sir
Francis Bacon persuade James to
call parliament; Neville promises to
manage it for him; rumors of this
get out;
• Spain and the Howards feared the
parliament;
• The Commons expelled the Privy
Councillor Sir Thomas Parry, and
attacked impositions (conflict with
the Lords; Neile);
• Sir John Hoskins’s speech about
Scots.
The Fall of Sir Edward
Coke 1616
• Coke (1552-1634): Thirteen
volumes of law Reports; 4 volumes
of Institutes;
• Solicitor General 1592; Speaker of
the Commons 1593; Attorney
General 1594; prosecutes Ralegh
for treason 1603; Gunpowder
Plotters 1605;
• 1598 married Burghley’s granddaughter Elizabeth Hatton (widow
of Sir Christopher Hatton’s heir);
rivalry with Bacon;
• 1606: Chief Justice of the Common
Pleas;
Sir Edward Coke (15521634)
Sir Francis Bacon,
Viscount St Alban (15611626)
The Fall of Sir Edward
Coke (Contd.)
• 1608: quarrel with James over
whether Kings can judge;
• 1613: Chief Justice of the King’s
Bench;
• Bonham’s Case (1609); Peacham’s
Case (1615); prohibitions;
• 1616: Coke’s dismissal: judges
accountable to King; only parliament
can hope to limit royal power.
• 1617: Coke abducted his own
daughter Frances and forced her to
marry the brother of the King’s new
favorite Buckingham; this gained him
re-appointment to the Council;
The Fall of Sir Edward
Coke (Concluded)
• But Coke did not get back his
position as Chief Justice;
• Coke’s daughter soon left
Buckingham’s brother;
Buckingham blamed Coke;
• From 1621 Coke was a leading
opponent in the House of
Commons of the crown’s
policies;
• In 1628 he co-wrote the
Petition of Right
The Fall of Carr and the
Rise of Buckingham
• 1616: trial of Carr and Frances for
murdering Sir Thomas Overbury; their
guilt debatable, but they are convicted
and spend six years in the Tower before
being released;
• Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, Count of
Gondomar (Spanish ambassador 161318, 1619-22);
• Sir Walter Ralegh (convicted of treason
1603; executed 1618);
• Economic problems; Alderman William
Cockayne’s Project 1614-17;
• George Villiers: Knight 1615; Viscount
1616; Earl of Buckingham 1617;
Marquess 1618; Duke 1623;
• Fall of the Howards 1618.
Diego Sarmiento de
Acuña, Count of
Gondomar (1567-1626)
George Villiers
(Buckingham) (15921628)
The Age of Buckingham
1618-28
• James I (1603-25); Charles I (1625-
•
•
•
•
49);
A game of tennis 1618; and a feast;
Economic crisis early 1620s (and
1629-31);
Foreign policy: the Thirty Years’
War (1618-48); Frederick V;
Princess Elizabeth; the Winter King
and Queen; Bohemia; the
Palatinate;
Rex pacificus: Beati pacifici –
“Blessed are the Peacemakers”.
Elizabeth, The Winter
Queen (1596-1662)
The Parliament of 1621
• Economic problems;
monopolies; Darcy v. Allen 1602;
• Sir Giles Mompesson; alehouses;
impeachment; Coke; Sir Francis
Bacon (Viscount St Alban); Lionel
Cranfield (attacks Bacon 1621;
Treasurer 1621-4; impeached
1624);
• Sir George Goring; the Commons
debates foreign policy;
• The Protestation of the
Commons 12/18/21.
The Spanish Match
• Gondomar; Olivares; Philip IV;
• The Infanta Maria Anna (160646);
• 1623: Jack and Tom Smith go to
Spain;
• Negotiations with Spain
flounder;
• 1624: return of the Prince and
the Duke, who now call for
war;
• 1624: the Prince’s Parliament.
Monopolies.
The Infanta Maria Anna (1606-46);
in 1631 she married her cousin
Ferdinand (III)
Religion and the Rise of
Arminianism
• John Williams; Thomas Morton; Synod
of Dort 1618; Calvinism; Arminius and
Arminianism; TULIP;
• Book of Sports 1618; sabbatarianism;
• John Selden on tithes 1618;
Erastianism;
• Arminians: Lancelot Andrewes;
Richard Montagu 1624; Richard Neile;
William Laud;
• Arminians – backed by Charles and
Buckingham;
• A number of Buckingham’s relatives
become Catholic; 1625 Charles marries
the Catholic Henrietta Maria.
Calvinist principles,
endorsed at the Synod of
Dort, 1618-19
• TOTAL DEPRAVITY
• UNCONDITIONAL
ELECTION
• LIMITED ATONEMENT
• IRRESISTIBLE GRACE
• PERSEVERANCE OF THE
SAINTS
Charles I (1625-49)
• Death of the old King, 1625:
poisoned?
• Survival of Buckingham (letters
of marque; Gustavus Adolphus);
• Parliament 1625: re-negotiating
levies on trade; impositions;
tonnage and poundage; plague
hits London and then Oxford;
• The Cadiz expedition: an
expensive failure.
• Parliament 1626: attempted
impeachment of Buckingham.
Charles I (1600-49)
Henrietta Maria (1609-69)
Crisis 1626-8
• Pembroke; Abbot; John Digby,
Earl of Bristol; Arundel; Sir Dudley
Digges; Sir John Eliot.
• Dissolution of parliament 1626;
• A benevolence (1626); the Forced
Loan (1626-7);
• Billeting; martial law; Banbury;
William Fiennes (Viscount Saye
and Sele);
• Imprisonment without cause
shown of refusers of the Loan; Sir
Thomas Darnell; the Five Knight’s
Case 1627; habeas corpus.
Religion and the Church
1625-7
• Montagu and Arminianism;
• The York House Conference
1626;
• 1626-7: Charles encourages the
clergy to preach in support of the
Forced Loan;
• 1627: Roger Maynwaring and
Robert Sibthorpe preach in favor
of the Loan; their sermons are
published;
• Abbot refuses to license
Sibthorpe’s sermon and is
suspended as Archbishop of
Canterbury.
Roger Maynwaring,
Religion and Alegiance,
1627
The Crisis of 1626-8
• More military failure: La
Rochelle; Huguenots; the Île de
Ré (or Rhé) 1627; 6,800 troops
set out; 3,000 return.
• The Parliament of 1628: 1626
Charles kept some leading
opponents out of parliament
by making them sheriffs (Coke;
Sir Thomas Wentworth);
they’re back in 1628;
• But Charles made it clear that if
parliament attacked
Buckingham he would dissolve
it;
Parliament 1628-9: the
Session of 1628 and the
Petition of Right
• Wentworth; John Selden; John
Pym; Eliot; Sir Robert Phelips;
• The money bill read twice; then the
Petition of Right is discussed;
• Billeting; martial law;
imprisonment without cause
shown (habeas corpus); king
cannot take property without
consent of parliament (no
benevolences or Forced Loan; and
no tonnage and poundage?);
• The Lords try to add a “saving
clause” to the Petition, recognizing
the King’s sovereignty;
John Selden (1584-1654)
The Petition of Right 1628
• The Commons reject the Lords’
saving clause; the bill goes ahead
without it;
• Charles rejects the Petition 2
June 1628; then consults the
judges, who say it will not
necessarily take away his
emergency powers; and then
accepts the Petition on 7 June;
• People rejoice – not realizing that
Charles thinks the Petition does
not limit his power;
• Maynwaring impeached;
Commons votes taxes
The Death of Buckingham
• 1628: The Commons and Charles
quarrel about tonnage and
poundage; then about Laud and
Neile; and finally about
Buckingham; Charles prorogues
Parliament;
• 23 August 1628: John Felton stabs
Buckingham to death; and
becomes a national (though soon
dead) hero;
• After proroguing Parliament,
Charles pardoned Maynwaring,
and made Richard Montagu a
bishop (replacing Calvinist George
Carleton);
Plaque outside a house in
Portsmouth
The House where
Buckingham was killed
1628-9
• From 1628 Laud (as Bishop of
London and then Archbishop of
Canterbury) controls the church
and the press; Calvinists
silenced.
• After the death of Buckingham,
Charles decided to try working
with Parliament again, in the
hope that it would be more
cooperative;
• Some opponents of Buckingham
did join his administration:
Wentworth; Bristol; William
Noy.
Parliament in 1629
• Arminianism;
• Continued collection of tonnage
and poundage;
• The case of John Rolle;
parliamentary privileges; the
King can do no wrong;
• The Commons is adjourned to 2
March;
• The three resolutions; Sir John
Eliot; Speaker Sir John Finch;
Benjamin Valentine; Denzil
Holles; William Strode; John
Selden.
• The King’s Declaration of 1629.
Early Stuart Parliaments:
Modern Debate
• The Whig Interpretation of
History;
• Samuel Rawson Gardiner;
•
•
•
•
Wallace Notestein;
Marxism: Christopher Hill;
Revisionism: Sir Geoffrey Elton;
Conrad Russell (the fifth Earl
Russell);
• Patronage; faction; principle;
property; religion.
• Post-revisionists.
Samuel Rawson Gardiner
(1829-1902)
The Personal Rule (or
Eleven Years’ Tyranny),
1629-40
• The King’s Servants: former
opponents: Sir Dudley Digges;
William Noy;
• (Secret) Catholics: Richard Weston
(Earl of Portland; Treasurer; d.
1635); Sir Francis Cottington
(Master of the Court of Wards); Sir
Francis Windebank (secretary);
• William Juxon (Bishop of London;
Treasurer from 1636);
• William Laud (Archbishop of
Canterbury 1633); Thomas
Wentworth, Earl of Strafford.
“Thorough”.
William Juxon attended Charles I at
his execution; Charles gave him this
medal (and Juxon gave it to his niece
at her wedding)
Finance in the Personal
Rule
• Advisors: likeminded; little
distribution of patronage; out of
touch with public opinion;
masques;
• Tonnage and poundage; some
merchants refuse to pay 1629;
Richard Chambers imprisoned
1629-35; peace with France
(1629) and Spain (1630): trade
improves 1630s;
• Distraint of knighthood 1630;
monopolies; soap; Ship Money;
John Hampden’s Case 1637-8.
William Laud (1573-1645)
William Laud and the
Church
• Campaign for full tithes;
prohibitions prohibited;
• Lecturers; impropriations;
Feoffees for Impropriations –
suppressed 1633. Great
Migration.
• Ceremonies; railing in of altar
at east end;
• Laud “E faece plebis”: Robert
Greville, Lord Brooke;
Laud and the Church
(Contd.)
• Physical punishment of
gentlemen: Alexander Leighton
1630; William Prynne 1634
(Histriomastix 1632);
• 1637: John Bastwick, Henry
Burton, and Prynne again; Star
Chamber; High Commission.
• Anti-sabbatarianism; reissue of
the Book of Sports 1633;
• Papal envoys; equation of pope
with Antichrist discouraged;
Henrietta Maria.
Thomas Wentworth, Earl
of Strafford (1593-1641)
Wentworth (Strafford
from 1639)
• 1628-32: Lord President of the
Council of the North;
• 1632-9: Lord Deputy of Ireland;
• 1639: back in England; Earl of
Strafford;
• Wentworth in Ireland: quarreled
with Richard Boyle, Earl of Cork;
accused financial official Francis
Annesley, Lord Mountnorris, of
corruption, and had him sentenced
to death; used questionably legal
means to confiscate land for the
crown in Connaught, alienating
native Irish.
The Scottish Troubles and
the Collapse of the
Regime
• 1637: the Scottish Prayer Book;
Jenny Geddes; a riot at St Giles’s
cathedral in Edinburgh;
• 1638: the Scottish National
Covenant
• 1639-40: the Bishops’ Wars; 1639
Lords Saye (William Fiennes) and
Brooke (cf. Saybrook Colony,
Connecticut, 1635);
• 1640: April-May: the Short
Parliament;
• 1640: 28 August: Battle of Newburn;
Scots take Newcastle;
• 1640: 3 November: the Long
Parliament meets.
1637: Scots protest against the new Prayer
Book (the preacher at St Giles was James
Hannay, Dean of Edinburgh; not John
Spottiswoode, Archbishop of St Andrews)
The Coming of Civil War,
1640-2
• Outline: (1) the meeting of the
Long Parliament 11/03/1640; (2)
Execution of Strafford, May
1641; (3) Constitutional
reforms, 1641; (4) Divisions on
social and religious questions;
(5) the Irish Revolt, October
1641; (6) the attempted arrest
of the Five Members, 4 January
1642; (7) the struggle for the
militia, and the start of the
War.
The Long Parliament:
Members
• 11/03/1640: the Long
Parliament meets.
• Providence Island Company;
Saybrook Company; John
Hampden; Oliver St John; John
Pym; William Fiennes,
Viscount Saye and Sele; Francis
Russell, Earl of Bedford.
• Denzil Holles; Sir Henry Vane
the younger
• Lucius Cary, Viscount Falkland;
Edward Hyde, Earl of
Clarendon.
John Pym (“King Pym”)
(1584-1643)
John Hampden (15951643)
Lucius Cary, Viscount
Falkland (1609/10-43)
The Long Parliament:
Actions
• Flight and arrest of the King’s
supporters: Finch; Windebank;
Hobbes; Laud; Strafford;
• May 1641: trial and execution
of Strafford; impeachment and
attainder; Vane (elder and
younger), Irish army, and “this
kingdom”; Essex – “stone dead
hath no fellow”.
• Reforms; Ship Money; judges;
Triennial Act 1641; act against
dissolution; abolition of Star
Chamber and High
Commission 1641.
“Black Tom Tyrant” (Thomas
Wentworth, Earl of Strafford)
attainted, and then (May 12 1641)
beheaded
Reforms; and Divisions
• Root and Branch petition; Sir Edward
Dering; (February 1642: Charles agrees
to a bill excluding bishops from Lords);
• The Scots go home 1641;
• Appointments to state office;
education of the King’s children; Pym’s
use of the London mob; no bishop, no
king, no lords, no gentry;
• Irish Revolt October 1641.
• 23 November 1641; the Grand
Remonstrance: 159-148 votes.
The Slide into War
• December 1641: Charles appoints
Sir Thomas Lunsford keeper of the
Tower of London;
• Mob keeps bishops from Lords; 12
bishops protest and are impeached
by Commons; Charles retaliates by
• Attempted arrest of Five Members
(and Baron Kimbolton; later Earl of
Manchester);
• Pym; Hampden; Holles; Sir Arthur
Hesilrige, Bart.; William Strode;
(3/)4 January 1642; Speaker William
Lenthall.
On 3 January 1642 the King asked
the Commons to hand over the
Five Members
The Slide into War
(Contd.)
• Sir John Hotham; Hull.
• The Ship Money navy falls into the
hands of parliament.
• Commissions of array; the militia
ordinance.
• North-west royalist; South-east
parliamentarian.
• Charles raises his standard at
Nottingham, 22 August 1642.
• Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex;
Prince Rupert of the Rhine.
• Edgehill, 23 October 1642.
Prince Rupert of the
Rhine (1619-82)
rd
Robert Devereux, 3 Earl
of Essex (1591-1646)
The First Civil War, 1642-6
• Outline: (1) Royalist successes
1642-3; (2) the alliance between
the Scots and parliament; (3) the
Eastern Association; (4) the selfdenying ordinance and the New
Model Army, 1645; (5) the defeat
and surrender of the King, 1646.
• York; Oxford;
• Hyde; Falkland.
• Royalists in parliamentarian
regions (and vice versa); Filmer;
Harley.
Thomas Rawlins designed
this Crown; Oxford is in
the background
Oxford (Oxon) Crown,
1644.
Cavaliers and Roundheads
• William Cavendish, Earl of
Newcastle (Marquess 1643;
Duke 1645);
• Royalist hawks: George, Lord
Digby; Thomas Hobbes (in
exile); moderates – Falkland;
Hyde.
• Parliamentarian hawks: Sir
Henry Vane jr.; Oliver Cromwell;
Henry Marten; Saye and Sele;
peace party: Edmund Waller;
Denzil Holles; middle group:
John Pym; Oliver St John.
Edmund Waller (1606-87; first
cousin of Hampden; second
cousin of Cromwell)
The War in 1643
• Rupert captures Bristol.
• Newcastle defeats Sir Thomas
Fairfax in the North.
• Ralph Hopton defeats
parliamentarians in southwest
and marches east.
• Plan for a three-pronged royalist
attack on London;
• But Gloucester holds out for
parliament west of Oxford;
The War in 1643
• The siege and relief of
Gloucester;
• The battle of Newbury (20
September 1643);
• Parliament allies with the
Scots; the Solemn League and
Covenant; the Westminster
Assembly;
• The Eastern Association Army;
Edward Montagu, Earl of
Manchester; Oliver Cromwell
(Ironside(s));
The War in 1643
Parliament begins to win,
1644
• Charles woos Irish Catholics;
• Marston Moor, 2 July 1644.
• Newcastle goes into exile;
parliament takes the north;
• But after Marston Moor,
Manchester becomes inactive;
• While Essex is defeated at
Lostwithiel, 21 August 1644;
• Attacks on Essex and Manchester
in parliament;
Parliament winning, 1645
• 1645: the Self-denying
ordinance;
• The New Model Army; Sir
Thomas Fairfax; Oliver
Cromwell; Henry Ireton;
• Naseby 14 June 1644.
• The King’s Cabinet Opened;
John Wallis;
• James Graham, Marquess of
Montrose, leads royalist
Highland rising in Scotland
(against Archibald Campbell,
Marquess of Argyll);
Oliver Cromwell (1599-
1658)
Sir Thomas Fairfax (161271)
James Graham, Marquess
of Montrose (1612-1650)
Parliament wins 1645-6
• Montrose is initially successful
but is finally defeated by David
Leslie at Philiphaugh, 13
September 1645.
• Fairfax recaptures Bristol,
September 1645.
• 1645-6: royalist strongholds fall
to parliament;
• 1646: 5 May: the King surrenders
– to the Scots;
• Charles hopes to exploit Scottish
dislike of the English
Independents; but the Scots
want him to become a
Presbyterian; he won’t.
The Causes of the English
Civil War
• English Civil War – or War of
the Three Kingdoms?
• Whigs: Gardiner; Notestein;
• Marxists: Hill; Stone;
Underdown;
• Revisionists: Elton, Russell;
faction; ideological agreement;
pressures of war; the question
of religion;
• Post-revisionists.
The English Revolution
1647-9: Charles in 1646-7
• Charles offers the Scots
Presbyterianism for 3 years only,
and free religious debate;
• They refuse, and return to
Scotland 30 January 1647,
handing the King over to
parliament;
• Charles under house arrest at
Holmby (Holdenby) House,
Northants. (mansion of Sir
Christopher Hatton);
• Parliament increasingly divided
between Presbyterians and
Independents.
Holmby or Holdenby House,
Northants.; built by Sir
Christopher Hatton; completed
1583
The English Revolution:
Presbyterians
• Presbyterians: strong in London;
wanted peace; restoration of order,
social hierarchy, censorship;
suppression of sects; many English
Presbyterians were more Erastian
than Scots (Denzil Holles; William
Prynne) (not all Erastians sided with
Presbyterians; some wanted
toleration – e.g. Selden);
• Presbyterians developed from earlier
peace party; Holles was their leader;
from 1646 they wanted to disband
most of the army without paying
arrears of pay, and without giving
soldiers indemnity for things done in
the war.
Denzil Holles (1599-1680); Baron
Holles 1661; brother-in-law of
Strafford
The English Revolution:
Independents and Sects
• Independents: as a political group,
they developed from earlier war party
and from middle group of Pym (d.
1643) and St John; (as a religious
group the Independents or
Congregationalists developed after
1604, and wanted congregations to be
autonomous);
• They wanted to win the war, and were
willing to promote religious/ political
radical to help achieve that goal;
• They wanted (some) religious
toleration, even if it led to (some)
social change;
• They were strong in the New Model
Army, and allied with new religious
sects.
Independents and Sects
(Contd.)
• New sects included Baptists
(General and Particular) and, in
the 1650s, Quakers.
• Supporters of the Independents
included Nathaniel Fiennes, his
father William Fiennes
(Viscount Saye and Sele) and
Oliver Cromwell.
• In 1646-7, the Presbyterian
majority in parliament started
to push through legislation to
disband the army;
• The Army petitioned
parliament;
William Fiennes, Viscount
Saye and Sele (15821662)
The Levellers
• In 1646-7, ideas of the Levellers
spread in the army; in 1647 the
Levellers proposed a written
constitution, the Agreement of the
People; it was debated by the army
at the Putney Debates in October/
November 1647;
• John Lilburne (c.1615-57); Freeborn
John;
• Richard Overton (? – 1663 or later);
General Baptist; redistribution of
land; poor law reform; abolition of
imprisonment for debt; national
education system;
The Agreement of the
People, 1647
The Levellers (Contd.)
• William Walwyn (1600-81): silk
merchant and later unlicensed medical
practitioner; Arminian; tolerant (even
of Catholics).
• John Wildman (1622/3-1693): plotted
against Charles II; imprisoned 1661-7;
MP 1680 and at the Glorious
Revolution; then Postmaster General
and a knight;
• Thomas Rainborowe (killed 1648);
currant merchant with Turkey
Company; naval and military
commander; colonel; supported
Agreement at Putney; “every man that
is to live under a Government ought
first by his owne consent to putt
himself under that Government”.
Leveller Principles
• Sovereignty of the people – taken
literally
• 1647: [Overton] An Appeal from
the degenerate representative
body the Commons of England to
the body represented, the free
people in general; Lords and
monarch powerless;
• No monopolies; law reform;
• Individual natural rights [Magna
Carta “that beggarly thing” –
Overton; Norman Yoke]
• Franchise: proportional and
widened.
The Army enters Politics
• Army rank-and-file elect Agitators
to consult with high command;
• 3 June 1647: Cornet George Joyce
seizes Charles I;
• 7 August 1647: the army occupies
London and expels Holles and ten
other members from parliament;
• October/ November 1647: the
Putney Debates; the army
discusses the Heads of the
Proposals (Ireton; parliament to
control appointments; toleration)
and the Agreement of the People
(Leveller);
Henry Ireton (1611-51)
The flight of Charles
(1647) and the second
Civil War (1648)
• Charles learned of plans to try
him for causing civil war; 11
November 1647 he fled; he took
refuge at Carisbrooke Castle in
the Isle of Wight;
• 26 December 1647: Charles
makes an agreement
(Engagement) with the Scots:
he will suppress heresy, and
enforce Presbyterianism for
three years; they will invade
England and defeat the New
Model Army;
The Second Civil War,
1648
• Mutiny in the navy;
• Scottish pro-royalist invasion of
northern England;
• Opinion in parliament shifts
against the army and towards
compromise with the King;
August – readmission of Holles
and the other excluded
members;
• Royalist/ Presbyterian rebellion
in Wales and Kent.
The Second Civil War and
its aftermath
• Cromwell suppresses rebellion in
Wales;
• Fairfax defeats the rebels at
Maidstone, Kent; some flee
across the Thames and capture
Colchester (Essex); Fairfax
besieges and captures it (28
August);
• Cromwell marches north and
defeats the Scottish / royalist
army at Preston (17 August);
• Parliament continues to negotiate
with Charles;
Royalists seized Pontefract Castle in
West Yorkshire, June 1648; they finally
surrendered on 25 March 1649
A shilling from Pontefract
Castle, in the name of
Charles II
Pride’s Purge and the Trial
and Execution of the King
• The army high command (but not
Fairfax) decide to try the King;
• December 6, 1648: Pride’s Purge
(Colonel Thomas Pride); over half
the members excluded from
parliament; the Rump
parliament;
• Appointment of a high court of
justice, of 135 men, to try the
King (67 show up; Fairfax stays
away; 59 sign the death warrant);
• Charles beheaded 30 January
1649.
The Execution of Charles
I, 30 January 1649
The Commonwealth
(1649-60): the Rump
(1649-53); Ireland
• Abolition of monarchy and the
House of Lords 1649;
• The Levellers suppressed.
• The Rump parliament; the
Council of State;
• The Engagement 1650;
• Cromwell in Ireland 1649-50;
• Ireland in the 1640s: 1641 revolt;
royalists in Ireland: James Butler,
Marquess (and later Duke) of
Ormond;
Cromwell and Ireland
1649-50
• 1645: Earl of Glamorgan sent
to Ireland by Charles I;
promises Catholics toleration);
• Papal nuncio in Ireland;
Ormond and parliament unite
to expel him; then Ormond
joins with Catholic rebels to
take Ireland for royalists; 1649
– danger of Charles II coming
to Ireland;
• Cromwell sent there;
Drogheda; Wexford; land
settlement; Edmund Ludlow;
Ireton.
Ireland: Cities
Ireland: land ownership
by Religion
Cromwell, Charles II, and
Scotland
• Fairfax retires;
• 1650: Charles II in Scotland;
• Cromwell invades Scotland;
out-manoeuvered by David
Leslie (who had fought at
Marston Moor; later Lord
Newark);
• Dunbar 3 September 1650;
• Worcester 3 September 1651
(“the crowning mercy”); the
Royal Oak. George Monck.
The Battle of Dunbar, 3
September 1650
David Leslie (1601-82;
Lord Newark 1661)
A “Royal Oak” Pub Sign (this one from
a little west of Salisbury, and a few
miles south of Stonehenge)
The End (for a while) of
the Rump
• 1652-4: first Anglo-Dutch War;
trade rivalry (Amboyna 1623);
Calvinist republics;
• Dutch reject proposal of union;
Navigation Act 1651; Robert
Blake – defeated by Maarten
(van) Tromp 1652, but
victorious 1653-4; Sir Henry
Vane the younger;
• 1653: April 20: Cromwell closes
down the Rump; Thomas
Harrison; Fifth Monarchists;
millenarianism.
Barebone’s Parliament
and the Protectorate
• Praisegod Barbebone (cf.
Damned Barebone); the
Nominated Assembly; Little
Parliament; Parliament of Saints
– July-December 1653
• Francis Rous (Speaker);
• 12 December 1653: the
Assembly closes itself down;
• 16 December 1653: the
Instrument of Government;
Lord Protector; Council of State;
checks and balances; separation
of powers;
The Instrument of
Government, 1653
The Protectorate
• Instrument of Government
1653: electoral reform; exroyalists lose vote; permanent
taxes to fund administration and
army, but further taxes (e.g. for
foreign war) require parliament’s
consent; parliament to meet at
least every three years, and for at
least 5 months; union
• Religion: toleration but a
national church remains: Triers
and Ejectors.
• A military despotism?
Parliament 1654-5; the
Major-Generals 1655-7
• Parliament meets 3 September
1654;
• It attacks the Instrument, and is
purged;
• It continues to criticize Cromwell,
who dissolves it after 5 lunar
months;
• Royalist and Leveller plots;
royalist John Gerard beheaded
1654; John Penruddock’s rising
(Salisbury) 1655;
• The rule of the Major-Generals
1655-7; decimation.
Foreign Policy and the
Parliament of 1656-8
•
•
•
•
War with Spain (1654-60):
Capture of Jamaica 1655;
Alliance with France 1657;
Battle of the Dunes 1658;
capture of Dunkirk from Spain
(sold to France 1662);
• Parliament: September 17 1656;
purged at start; votes money for
war;
• Leveller Miles Sindercombe plots
to kill Cromwell 1657; raises
question of succession;
Gold Unite (20s) of 1656
The Return of Royal Imagery:
Pattern Gold Broad (20s) of
Cromwell, 1656
Quakers, Parliament, and
the Humble Petition and
Advice
• Quakers; George Fox; James
Nayler;
• “Thou-ing”; hat honour; steeplehouses; “going naked for a sign”;
• Nayler in Bristol; Dorcas Erbury;
Nayler tried by parliament for
horrible blasphemy; punished;
• December 25 1656: Cromwell
writes to parliament, asking by
what authority it had punished
Nayler;
• The resulting debate led to the
Humble Petition and Advice;
Punishment of James Nayler,
December 1656; by Wenceslas
Hollar
The Humble Petition and
Advice, 1657
• The Humble Petition and Advice
offered Cromwell the crown (he
rejected it); it authorized him to
name his successor; and it created
a second chamber in parliament –
the “Upper House”, which would
have the powers of the old Lords;
• The Protector was to name
members of the Upper House;
• The Protector could no longer
purge the Lower House.
Parliament 1658, and
Cromwell’s death
• January 1658 Cromwell recalled
parliament, which now had two
Houses;
• Purged members returned to the
Lower House, and appointments
to the Upper House weakened
Cromwell’s control of the Lower;
• Sir Arthur Hesilrige and others
attacked the Humble Petition and
the Upper House; Cromwell
dissolved parliament February 4
1658
• Cromwell died September 3
1658; malaria?
Sir Arthur Hesilrige
(Haselrig) (1601-61; died
in the Tower)
The Protectorate of
Richard Cromwell
• Oliver left no will; but the Council
of State said he named Richard
Cromwell as his successor;
• Richard called parliament in
January 1659; it included some
strong republicans (Hesilrige; Henry
Neville; cf. James Harrington);
• Richard lacked military experience;
he tried to cut army funding, and
fell out with Major-General Charles
Fleetwood (his brother-in-law);
• April 1659: the army forced Richard
to dissolve parliament; May –
Richard abdicates.
Richard Cromwell (16261712)
The fall of the
Commonwealth
• The Rump restored, May 1659;
• Sir George Booth’s royalist/
Presbyterian rebellion in
Cheshire; John Lambert
suppresses it;
• Fears of a Quaker rising.
• The Rump dissolved (October);
tax strike; trade slump; the army
disintegrates; Portsmouth and
Hull refuse to obey the
generals; the Rump revived
again (December)
George Monck intervenes
• January 1660: Monck marches
south; petitions;
• 11 January Monck reaches York,
and is welcomed there by
Fairfax;
• 2 February: Monck in London;
• The Rump demotes Monck from
military command; he retaliates
• 21 February by reversing Pride’s
Purge;
• 16 March: the Long Parliament
arranges for new elections;
George Monck (1608-70),
Duke of Albemarle; by Sir
Peter Lely, c.1665
Monck (and Lely): a
Digression
• Monck was a younger son of a west
country gentleman and a merchant’s
daughter;
• At 16, he volunteered to go on the
Cadiz expedition;
• In 1626 he and his brother attacked an
under-sheriff at a tavern in Exeter; to
escape justice he enlisted as a soldier
and in 1627 went on the La Rochelle
expedition;
• In the 1630s he fought (in an English
regiment) for the Dutch against the
Spanish; he became a captain;
• Monck served a a lieutenant-colonel
for Charles I against the Scots 1639-40;
Digression on Monck (&
Lely), (Contd.)
• In 1642 he was a colonel fighting for
the King in Ireland;
• In 1644 he fought for the King in
England and was captured by the
parliamentarians;
• He agreed to fight for them against
the Irish rebels, and went to Ireland as
a general in 1647; then he
commanded in Scotland, and in the
first Dutch War served as an admiral,
before running Scotland for Cromwell;
1660: Duke of Albemarle
• Lely (Lily/ Lilly): Pieter van der Faes
(1618-80): Dutch parents; born in
Germany; came to England 1641
The Restoration 1660
• 4 April: the Declaration of
Breda; a general pardon and
toleration (parliament to decide
details);
• 25 April: the Convention
Parliament meets; consists of
Lords and Commons (the latter
elected on the old franchise);
• 8 May: Charles II proclaimed
King in London;
• 25 May: Charles lands at Dover;
29 May (his 30th birthday) he
reaches London.
Charles II
(1630/1649/1660-85)
The Coronation, 23 April 1661;
George Monck leads the Horse
of Estate
What was (Not) Restored
• Restored: Monarchy; Lords; Bishops; Royal
and Church Land (Land of King; Bishops;
Deans; Chapters); but Land sold by
Royalists to pay fines not automatically
returned;
• Not restored: High Commission; Star
Chamber; (almost) all laws from 1642 on;
electoral reforms; union
• Restored – or Not?: Triennial Act; ExtraLegal Royal Powers;
• Executed: 13 regicides; Hugh Peter; Sir
Henry Vane the younger;
• Disinterred; head stuck on a spike and
publicly displayed: John Bradshaw,
Cromwell, Ireton.
At the Restoration the bodies of a
number of leading figures who had
been buried in Westminster Abbey
were exhumed
Robert Blake (1598-1657), exhumed
from Westminster Abbey and dumped
in a common grave in St Margaret’s,
Westminster
The Restoration and After
• John Milton; Henry Marten;
Edmund Ludlow;
• Manchester; Saye and Sele;
• Hackney carriages;
• Thomas Venner (Fifth
Monarchist); Coldstream Guards;
army; renewed threat of royal
absolutism; James II 1685-8;
• Financial settlement; customs
and excise;
• Catherine of Braganza; Tangier;
Bombay; sale of Dunkirk;
The Restoration and After
• 1662: Act of Uniformity; defeat of
Presbyterians; 2,000 clergy
deprived;
• Whigs and Tories. William III and
Mary II.
• Religious Toleration – contested
until 1689 and later; Toleration Act
1689;
• Glorious Revolution 1688;
Revolution Settlement; royal
power limited; monarch henceforth
rules through leader of party with
majority in parliament; judges get
tenure 1701; licensing act lapsed
1695.