Handout: Introduction to Argument:
Claims, Evidence, Warrants and Stakes
The argument or arguable claim is the type of statement we will spend the most time and
attention on in this class, and which you will be working through in your written assignments.
This is a statement that intends to persuade, convince, argue, prove or suggest something to a
reader or to someone who does not necessarily agree with you initially. This includes essays in
which authors are trying to persuade the reader that their readings, ideas, theories or applications
are valid. The basis for all your formal academic writing will be this type of a claim.
Academic Argument
Non-academic argument, or what most people mean by argument, is usually a polar opposition:
I’m right/you’re wrong; I win/you lose; you’re a Democrat/I’m a Republican; I’m right/you’re
left; I’m pro-choice/you’re against choice (Even this small example makes rhetorical choices –
writing “against choice” instead of “pro-life” already makes an argument; displays a specific
tone in the writing and reveals authorial assumptions/opinions.)
Academic arguments are different – they are built on more complex, specific and detailed claims
supported by evidence (usually from our readings). The evidence in an academic argument must
be analyzed in your writing to show how it supports your claim or, in other words, how your
evidence warrants the ideas you present. An academic argument is not a quarrel in which the
winner has the right answer and the loser has the wrong one. An academic argument is an
exploration. In academic argumentation opposing viewpoints are all valid as long as there is
credible textual evidence to support one’s claims.
1) The claim
In this course, we’re going to use a model developed by Stephen Toulmin, who
sees arguments as having three parts: the claim, its support and associated
warrants/assumptions. These categories are both what to look for while you are reading
and to keep in mind while you are writing.
The claim is the main argument or the main point of your academic essay. It is
similar to a thesis but at the university level it should be more specific, original and
arguable than a thesis. It should also not be too obvious or general.
A claim IS:
 The main argument of an essay. It is probably the single most important part of
an academic paper. The quality of the entire paper hinges on the claim, so if your
claim is boring or obvious, the rest of the paper probably will be too.
 Argumentative. When you make a claim, you are arguing for a certain
interpretation or understanding of your subject. A claim must be debatable and
defendable with textual evidence.
 Specific. It makes a focused argument (MTV’s popularity is waning because it no
longer plays music videos) rather than a general one (MTV sucks). A claim must
be small enough to argue within the page limit you are given.
 Original. An argument must be your own – if it’s been argued already it’s time to
find another angle, another text or another theoretical angle.
A claim is NOT:
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A statement of opinion. Lobster is delicious is not a claim. There is no way to
argue against it, because it is subjective.
Overly general. The Seattle Seahawks had a bad defense last year is not a very
good claim. A better one would be: Last season, the Seattle Seahawks’ defensive
problems resulted largely from the offense’s short possession times.
Limited necessarily to one sentence. If you have a complicated claim, it may take
several sentences or even a whole paragraph to articulate it.
Always followed by three supporting paragraphs and a conclusion. The “fiveparagraph essay” is a genre that is not capable of conveying the complexity of an
college-level academic argument.
Obvious. Using scientific evidence, expert interviews, and close reading of
meteorological texts, you could successfully argue that it rains a lot in Seattle but
this might not be the most interesting of arguments.
Example of an appropriate Claim for an Academic Argument:
The media is an influential force in our society. It carries the power to shape our
thoughts and close or accommodate our perception of a particular event. In many cases,
the media will shape an event around norms in society focused on a particular group of
people, many times masking real and complex social issues that truly gave rise to the
incident. These ‘master narratives’ oversimplify events and fail to tell the whole story in
order to provide predictability and comfort to society or a group of people. This was the
case during the Los Angeles riot of 1992.
2) The Support/Evidence
These are statements that back up your claim. This can take many forms: facts,
data, personal opinion, expert opinion, or evidence from other texts and sources. The
more reliable and comprehensive your support, the more likely your audience is to
accept your claim. The support for your papers in this class will be primarily textual
evidence from our readings coupled with your own analysis of these passages.
Additionally, the use of other critical texts written by academics can help support or
provide a counterargument to your own. Academic argument excludes the following as
support:
 Because I think so
 Because it is my opinion
 Because my friends or relatives or heroes think so
 Because most people think so
 Because it is morally right
Examples of opinions:
I like dance music.
I think Virginia Woolf is a better writer than James Joyce.
Examples of arguments or arguable claims with support:
Dance music has become popular for reasons that have nothing to do with the quality of
the music; rather, the clear, fast beats respond to the need of people on amphetamines to
move, and to move quickly.
Virginia Woolf is a more effective writer than James Joyce because she does not rely on
elaborate language devices that ultimately confuse and alienate the reader.
What are the differences?
1. An argument is supported by evidence, which can be debated/challenged.
Opinion is supported by more opinion (and ultimately you end up with
something along the lines of “Well, just because, okay?”).
2. Something more than statement and support: an arguable claim also goes on
to address the “so what?” question, the implications and why we should care
in the first place.
3) Warrant/assumptions
Assumptions include the beliefs, values, inferences and/or experiences that you
assume your audience has in common with you when writing essays. These are what
readers and writers bring to the text. If your audience doesn’t share the assumptions you
are making about your support, then it won’t be effective. In your analysis you will
show how the textual evidence you use supports your claims – this includes explicitly
discussing in detail the reasoning that warrants your use of that evidence.
Example:
Someone warns you, “Don’t eat the mushroom – it’s poisonous!”
The claim: You shouldn’t eat the mushroom.
Its support/evidence: The mushroom is poisonous.
The warrants/assumptions: You speak the same language as the warning. You aren’t
immune to poisonous mushrooms. You don’t already know it’s poisonous. You want to
live. You trust the speaker’s knowledge of mushrooms. You don’t know of some other
medicinal use for that mushroom.
4) Stakes
We will add stakes to Toulmin’s three parts of an argument. The stakes of an
argument answer the question, “So what?” The stakes are what make the essay
important to write or read. These should be made explicit in your writing. It is good to
let the reader know why your essay matters and any real-world applications there are for
what you are arguing.
Example:
The stakes of the above sentence: Someone will die if the mushroom is eaten.
5) Counterarguments
In arguing a claim, you should always consider potential counterclaims and
counterarguments. A counterclaim denies the validity of your claim. It is rhetorically
useful to address counterclaims in your writing because it strengthens your paper by
showing that you’ve taken the ideas of others into consideration. Arguing against these
ideas shows your rhetorical power and shows other ways to think about them.
Example:
The claim (from above): Dance music has become popular for reasons that have
nothing to do with the quality of the music; rather, the clear, fast beats respond to the
need of people on amphetamines to move, and to move quickly.
Counterargument: You’re wrong. Dance music is popular because of hegemonic
advertising forces.
Using the counterargument in your paper: Although some say that dance music is
popular because of the “need of people on amphetamines to move” (citation), the
hegemonic force of advertising is a much more powerful motivation to buy records.