Attitudes through Eponyms
Conferenţiar universitar doctor Floriana POPESCU
Universitatea « Dunărea de Jos » Galaţi
Eponyms originate in names of persons (McArthur 1996:350) or in proper nouns, a larger category
of non-personal names, which also includes names of nationalities. The practice of using proper
nouns as common words has resulted in their change of meaning and specialization, which finally
contributes to the enrichment of the English vocabulary. This approach classifies the eponyms (only
those words which express nationalities and which result from the semantic transformation) on the
criterion of the attitude that is involved by the use of such eponyms in the process of communication
and will focus on less frequently used such lexical formations. The description starts with
recategorized names of nationalities, and which deals only with ‘single-word’ eponyms, which are
used per se.
Recategorized epoyms
This section considers the names of nationalities which have become common nouns or
adjectives and whose usage involves either a neutral or a negative tone on the part of the speaker.
Thus, Afghan basically refers to the natives or the inhabitants of Afghanistan, but when used
without capitalized it refers to two objects: (a) a blanket or a shawl of wool knitted or crocheted in
strips of squares and (b) a Turkoman carpet of large size and long pile woven in geometric design.
Apache, a term used to denominate a member of a group of American Indian people in the
southwestern US or any of the Athabascan languages of the Apache people is used nowadays to
point to a ‘lawless ruffian or hooligan in Paris or elsewhere’(CCD 1990:41). Welsh, proudly used
to refer to the Celtic language of the Welsh people, is the source of the verb to welsh meaning (a)
‘to avoid payment’ and (b) ‘to break one’s word’ (WEUD 1994: 2159).
Eponyms with contrary meanings
This subdivision focuses on a special category of eponyms derived from names of
nationalities, those which suggest either a positive or a negative attitude on the part of the speaker.
This is the case with Vandal, the generic name of the Germanic tribes who lived in the 4th
and 5th centuries and who finally sacked Rome, denotes in present-day usage a person who willfully
or ignorantly destroys, damages or defaces property belonging to another or to the public.
Undergoing the same process, Trojan, the native or inhabitant of Troy, exemplifies a case of
contronym with its two totally opposed meanings, the one derived from the history of the lands for a
Trojan is a man who shows qualities (as endurance or determined energy) traditionally attributed
to the defenders of ancient Troy and the second meaning, illustrating a degradation of meaning is
used to refer to a disreputable or irresponsible companion. The term is also part of idiomatic
construction to work like a Trojan i.e., to work very hard, with great perseverance and energy.
Another example of contronym is that provided by Tartar, a term of Persian origin which
primarily denominates a native or inhabitant of Tartary, but which is used to express two different
attitudes, a positive or a negative one and which are dependent on the context. Thus, a Tartar is
either a person of irritable or violent temper or, quite the opposite, a person that proves to be
unexpectedly formidable. In the idiom to catch a Tartar the hidden meaning is also negative since
the recourse to it the speaker would mean that someone has got into deep trouble.
Eponyms expressing negative attitudes
This section constitutes the main part of the approach, since it insists upon a larger inventory
of set patterns, out of which the Dutch element plays a predominant role. The section starts with a
pattern coming from the British world namely, to have an Irishman’s rise, which is ironically used
to point to someone’s involution, regress, or failure.
Instances where common nouns derived from names of nationalities developed in parallel
two different meanings are offered by terms coming particularly but not exclusively from Europe. A
first exception is the name used to denominate inhabitants of Egypt, the Egyptians, is part of the
idiom to spoil the Egyptians which involves negative feelings since its meaning is to take by force,
to take someone against one’s will.
Gypsy is used as a verb and it means to live or roam like a member of this ethnic group,
which suggests a negative attitude. This may also be felt in the case of ‘it’s the gypsy in one’, an
idiom used as an explanation for someone’s behaviour since the dictionary entry mentions ’it is that
gypsy-like part of one’s character (developed by background, upbringing, etc.) which makes one
behave in a certain way’
A quotation from Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, which has become famous and which is
recorded by most of the monolingual English dictionaries, includes a name of a nationality, Greek
and says it’s (all) Greek to me. The syntagm is used informally as a synonym for ‘I don’t
understand’ or ‘something unintelligible’ or ‘ít cannot be read’; as an adjective in the set phrase ‘a
Greek gift’ the nationality word is replaceable by dangerous. Somewhat neutral in meaning the
same term is used in the idiomatic construction the Greeks had a name/word for it as a reminder
that a human condition or activity, an idea, scientific theory, physical fact, etc. has existed and been
known about for a very long time.
Along their history together the British have acquired a set of idiomatic constructions which
are based on the term French and they mostly reveal a negative attitude. This is the case with to
take French leaf (which originated in the 18th century French custom of leaving a party without
saying goodbye to the host or hostess) and which is nowadays the synonym of to be absent or on
holiday especially from work or military duty, without permission (Cowie, Mackin, McCraig
1993:124). Often used humorously, pardon my French is another way of saying please excuse my
bad language (Cowie, Mackin, McCraig 1993: 55). The speaker’s attitude turns into irony when
using the idiom to assist in the French sense to mean not to help at all, to be of no use to someone.
Dutch is the name of nationality which has recorded the most numerous adjectival patterns
or idiomatic constructions to point to the negative attitude the Dutch must have created to the
British somewhere centuries ago, when the Dutch fleet proved to be stronger than that of the
English. Cowie, Mackin, McCraig (1993: 68) account for this attitude of attributing negative
characteristics to the Dutch as ín keeping with the 17th century propaganda spread by sailors who
regarded the Dutch as rivals’. From this rivalry between the Dutch and the British sailors the
linguistic implication with regard to most of the phrases including the word Dutch or its derivatives
remains that they are ungenerous derives.
Adjectivally used, with a pejorative more or less hidden meaning, the term appears in
syntagms as a Dutch treat (any kind of entertainment –meal, film, etc. – where each person pays
his/her own share) and a Dutch party, which is an American phrase for a special kind of party to
which all the guests are expected to contribute food. A Dutch auction (a kind of auction at which
the auctioneer begins by asking a high price and then reduces it until someone offers to pay the
price the price he is asking), or Dutch courage, which, is in fact, false bravery inspired by alcohol,
are set phrases which add more colour to the image of the attitudes involved by the use of words
expressing nationalities . This syntagm is considered to have appeared either from the belief that the
Dutch were heavy drinkers or from the fact that gin was produced into England by the Dutch
followers of William III. (Cowie, Mackin, McCraig 1993: 92). A Dutch uncle (a person who gives
unwelcome and unsolicited advice) but the set phrase like a Dutch uncle which is used adverbially
should be understood as a synonym to ‘in a scolding manner’ (supposedly from the reputation of
the Dutch for their severe family discipline). As an adverb, Dutch is used in the phrases in Dutch (to
be in Dutch with the boss i.e. to be in disfavour, or in trouble, to get in Dutch that is to say to get in
trouble) and to go Dutch on something which means to share costs of an outing or treat equally. As
a noun Dutch is used with a generic meaning in two set phrases to beat the Dutch (to go beyond any
limit; to exceed any possible imagination) and the Dutch have taken Holland! (big deal!)
Conclusions
The eponyms derived from names of nationalities are used individually or as parts of various
types of constructions (idioms or set phrases) and they suggest not only situations but attitudes on
the part of the speaker as well. While very few of them have a neutral tone and few of them have a
positive meaning, most of the examples described in the paper show negative or ironic attitudes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
* * * 1990. Chambers Concise Dictionary, W& R Chambers Limited, (=CCD)
COWIE, A.P., MACKIN, R., McCRAIG, I.R. 1993. The Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms,
Oxford, Oxford University Press
McARTHUR, T. 1996. The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Oxford,
Oxford University Press,
* * * 1994. Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, New York,
Gramercy Books, p. 951 (=WEUD)