Causes and Risk Factors of Sexual Assault
Running Time:
Materials:
1½ hours
Flipchart with stand and markers, or chalkboard with chalk;
tape.
Target Audience: Can be used for awareness-raising with
various audiences
or participants.
 This session is designed to increase participants’ knowledge about different theories and causes of
sexual assault. Different risk factors that increase the chances of sexual assault are also discussed.
Introduction
Facilitator:
Although every woman is a potential target for sexual assault, there are certain risk
factors and situations that increase the possibility of sexual assault. Theorists have developed many
different models as to why sexual assault happens. Most of these theories focus on why men sexually
assault or how society fosters an environment that is tolerant of sexual assault. In addition, there are
certain risk factors associated with women, men and the environment that increase the likelihood of
sexual assault. It is important to understand that the presence of these risk factors does not mean the
victim is at blame. There is no specific class of women who will be or ask to be sexually assaulted. For
example, just because a woman is an alcoholic or dresses proactively does not mean that she contributed
to the sexual assault in any way; rather, these factors simply indicate there may be an increased chance
of sexual assault. It is important not to view these risk factors as reasons to imply blame on the victim—
risk factors do not mean that the woman could have or should have avoided the sexual assault.
Learning Objectives:
Facilitator:
At the end of this session, participants will be able to:
- Discuss common theories regarding causes and risk factors associated with sexual
assault.
- Identify situations where there is an increased risk for sexual assault.
Activity 1: Causes of Sexual Assault
1. Facilitator leads a brainstorming session to create a list of risk factors that increase the chances of
sexual assault. Facilitator asks each of the participants to share their ideas randomly or in turn. The
ideas are not criticized or discussed; participants may build on ideas voiced by others. The questions
for brainstorming is:
 What factors increase a woman’s vulnerability to sexual assault?
 What factors increase a man’s risk of committing sexual assault?
 Write down each answer as they are offered on the flipchart as two lists without any comments, notes
or questions for 5-7 minutes. After discussing the ideas, post the two lists on the wall.
2. Facilitator summarizes the results of the brainstorming and leads a group discussion about the risk
factors.
 Risk factors for women include: youth, alcohol or drug use, past experiences of sexual assault or
abuse, a history of many sexual partners, engaging in sex work, having a higher education and
economic status and poverty. Also, living in situations of violence, such as armed conflict or
persecution, heighten the risk of sexual assault for women. Again, it is important to remember
that no woman is sexually assaulted because she acts, lives or dresses a certain way; these risk
factors only increase the chance that a sexual assault could occur and do not mean the woman is
to blame for the sexual assault.
 Factors which might predict men’s propensity to sexually assault include: alcohol or drug use,
fantasies and attitudes supporting sexual violence, impulsive and antisocial tendencies, a
preference for impersonal sex, hostility toward women, a history of sexual abuse or family
violence as a child, poverty, lack of employment, lack of institutional support, community tolerance
of sexual assault, societal norms supportive of male superiority and sexual entitlement, social
norms supportive of sexual violence, weak laws and policies on gender equality and sexual
assault, high levels of violence in his surroundings, a strong patriarchal relationship between the
perpetrator and victim, family honor and associating with sexually aggressive peers.
 These risk factors have been found to have an additive effect—that is, the more risk factors
present, the higher the likelihood that some form of sexual violence will occur.
 Questions to ask include:


How might societal norms or community values here contribute to sexual assault?
How do family histories or common family expectations here contribute to sexual assault?
Activity 2: Causes of Sexual Assault
1. Facilitator gives a mini-lecture on theories about causes of sexual assault and follows it a description
of the different theories below. Facilitator reads each description, then asks participants questions
following each model. Facilitator should feel free to substitute other questions as appropriate or
relevant to the group of participants.
 There are many theories and reasons why sexual assault occurs. These theories have developed
over time and encompass a wide variety of explanations. The most widely accepted reason is set
forth by the Declaration on the Elimination Violence Against Women (DEVAW). This instrument
recognizes that violence against women, which includes sexual harm or suffering to women
(Article 1), is the result of women’s insubordination to men. It begins by “[r]ecognizing that
violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men
and women, which have led to domination over and discrimination against women by men and to
the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence against women is one of the
crucial social mechanism by which women are forced into a subordinate position compared to
men.”
 Facilitator should write the DEVAW explanation on the flipchart beforehand and post it for everyone to
read.
2. The following are some theories about causes of sexual assault:
 Psychopathology model


This initial approach stated that perpetrators were mentally ill individuals who could not
control their sexual impulses. Their propensity to rape others was a result of their
chemical imbalance.
Question: How would rapists be treated under the psychopathology model? Answer:
According to a medical perspective, the rapist would be treated with psychotherapy,
electrotherapy and hormones. However, in comparing this to domestic violence theory,
this classification is erroneous. Researchers of domestic violence have found that
batterers’ behavior do not correlate to those of mentally ill individuals. Whereas batterers
only attacked their intimate partners, mentally ill people did not limit their violence to their
intimate partners. Likewise, as rapists usually sexually assault people they know, it
follows that treating their behavior as a mental illness would not be the best approach.
 Learned behavior


Under this theory, cultural norms and expectations facilitate acceptance of sexual assault.
Male honor, masculinity and sexual entitlement contribute to a doctrine of male
superiority, thus fostering an environment where sexual assault is both common and
accepted.
Question: How do situations of armed conflict impact a society with heightened norms of
masculinity? Answer: Societal violence encourages male aggression and male
dominance. A link has been found to exist between sexual violence and violence on a
societal level. For instance, when men find they are unable to support women
economically or control them, they may use sexual aggression as a means of dominance.
 Psychological development models


This theory suggests that men who sexually assault have harsh histories where coercion
and violence were acceptable ways of maintaining a relationship. Past relationships
during development would have been impersonal and short-lived. Researchers have
found that perpetrators develop either along an “impersonal sex pathway” or a “hostile
masculinity pathway.”
Question: What types of characteristics can be found in both pathways? The perpetrator
who develops along the impersonal sex pathway associates with delinquent peers, is
introduced to sexual activity early on and has many sexual partners. The perpetrator who
develops along the hostile masculinity pathway has an insecure sense of masculinity,
hostility, mistrust and seeks to dominate women.
 Media


This model suggests that media and its portrayal of violence desensitize men to sexual
assault. Images of masculinity in the media also facilitate the association of masculinity
with violence, domination and control. This is also connected with the male dominance
theory and society’s depiction of sex as a marketable commodity.
Question (open-ended): What ads, commercials, television shows or films can you recall
which have perpetuated and portrayed sexual violence and stereotypical notions of
masculinity and femininity?
 Biological theory


This model proposes that over time, natural selection and evolution have favored rape,
because it led to an increase in reproductive success for the male. According to this
theory, women have more mating choices, thereby causing them to be more selective
when choosing a mate. For males, rape was a tool to circumvent that female
selectiveness and increase their mating numbers and reproductive success throughout
history.
Question: How does this theory harm the interests of women? Answer: Because it
attributes the perpetrator’s behavior to nature or biology, it diminishes the accountability of
perpetrators while shifting more blame to women. A rapist’s behavior is unavoidable, and
criminal punishments such as castration or hormonal injections are preferred. Because
men cannot control their biological tendencies under this theory, women tend to be
blamed for dressing or acting provocatively.
 Male dominance


This model suggests that sexual assault is the male response to the social inequality
between women and men. Because women have been historically regarded as property,
sexual assault of a woman is regarded more as a violation or theft of the victim’s husband
or intimate partner’s property rather than a violation of women’s rights. Furthermore,
women must constantly guard against sexual assault. They are restricted in their
behavior, feel less worthy, and more distrustful of others, all of which gives more control
to men.
Question: How does a culture that markets sex through prostitution, sexually explicit ads
or pornography contribute to this theory? Answer: Societal marketing of sex as “goods”
results in a sense of entitlement to sex. Because men can obtain sex by paying for it,
obtaining it without consent becomes less reprehensible than other crimes that are fully
prohibited.
 Sexual assault as an act of violence (DEVAW explanation)


This model suggests that sexual assault is not an act of sexual desire or biology.
Perpetrators are driven by a desire for power and domination and aim to hurt, control and
humiliate the victim. Sexual assault is an act of violence, and sex is the weapon. Many
women’s human rights activists agree that this model most accurately depicts sexual
assault and should be used in framing policies and laws for prevention and punishment
that best protect women.
Question: How might sexual assault as an act of violence explain why women with more
education and a higher economic status face an increased risk of sexual violence by an
intimate partner or spouse? Answer: The World Health Organization has found that
women, who are more educated—and thus more empowered—are at greater risk of
physical violence by a partner or spouse. The most likely explanation is that greater
empowerment leads to more resistance to patriarchal norms, resulting in men resorting to
violence to try and regain control.
Summary and Closing:
Facilitator closes by summing up the discussion:



While every woman is at risk for sexual assault, certain factors and situations will increase the
likelihood of sexual assault. This includes being young, using alcohol or drugs, having many
sexual partners or experiencing sexual abuse in the past, living in armed conflict or as a refugee,
being poor, or having a higher education and economic status. None of these risk factors mean
that the woman is to blame for the sexual assault.
Men also may have factors that increase their propensity to sexually assault. In addition, different
theories have suggested that the male’s propensity to sexually assault may be a result of his
biology, sexual impulses, psychological development, media, society or domination.
The theory which best explains why sexual assault happens is that it is an act of violence against
women used to control and humiliate the victim.
Questions and Comments:
Facilitator should end the session by asking if there are remaining questions or comments related to this
material. Keeping track of feedback will allow the facilitator to make useful changes to future
presentations.
It would be helpful to ask participants to generate a list of questions they have about trafficking in women.
Facilitator should record these questions and make sure all of them are answered by the end of the
training workshop.
Sources:
Katharine K. Baker, Once a Rapist? Motivational Evidence and Relevancy in Rape Law, 110 Harv. L. Rev. 563 (1997).
Steven Gold’s review of: Sex, Power, Conflict: Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives, Edited by David M. Buss and Neil M.
Malamuth, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996.
Owen D. Jones, Sex, Culture, and the Biology of Rape: Toward Explanation and Prevention, 87 Cal. L.R. 827, 838-39 (1999).
Jana L. Jasinski, Theoretical Explanations for Violence against Women, in Sourcebook on Violence Against Women 5, 12-13
(Claire M. Renzetti et al. eds., 2001).
N.M. Malamuth & M.F. Heilmann, Evolutionary Psychology and Sexual Aggression, in Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology
515-42 (C. Crawford & D.L. Krebs, eds., 1998)
Myriam Miedzian, How Rape is Encouraged in American Boys, in Transforming a Rape Culture 155, 157 (Emilie Buchwald et
al. eds., 1993).
Sanday, The Socio-Cultural Context of Rape: a Cross-Cultural Study (1981).
Randy Thornhill, The Biology of Human Rape, 39 Jurimetrics J. 137 (1999).
Patricia Weiser Easeal, [Violence Prevention Today: Rape, October 1992, available at
http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/vpt/vpt1.pdf.
World Health Organization, First World Report on Violence and Health (2002), available at
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/wrvh1/en/.
Copyright © 2003 The Advocates for Human Rights; available from http://www.stopvaw.org.
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