Emotion
Definition ‘Emotion is a transitory, valenced experience that is felt with some intensity as
happening to the self, generated in part by a cognitive appraisal of situations and
accompanied by both learned and innate physical responses.’
(A trait is a predisposition to a state). You may distinguish between emotional states and
mood states although they can be fuzzy especially with basic states like anxious and
depressed moods. Moods are basic feeling states such as energy and tension, which are not
necessarily attached to an event and may last for hours. Have you ever awakened in a bad
mood and stayed like that – apparently for no good reason? An emotion can last as long as
the event and be brief although some can be complex e.g. as in German Shadenfreude:
pleasure at others misfortune.
The word emotion comes from Latin and means to move or to stir up.
Generally
psychologists use the word emotion to refer to a show of feelings that are produced when
important things happen to us. Emotions are relatively short lived and occur in response to
events but can occur in remembering e.g. recall an embarrassing thing that you did in the
past and re-experience it - do you feel embarrassed? It has been argued that motivation is
involved in emotions in that positive and negative emotions are experienced when we
come across reinforcing or punishing stimuli.
Of course, there are many problems with the definition of emotions. There are so many
ways we can express what we see as emotional behaviours. For example Davitz 1970
found 556 words and phrases that are emotion related.
Emotion is a complex condition that arises in response to certain affectively toned
experiences.
What we notice, or recognise is: -
The first component (the subjective experience of the emotion) - the affective bit - what
we feel.
The second component is internal bodily reaction, especially those involving the
autonomic nervous system - you might shake, or raise your voice almost unwillingly, in
response to an experience.
The third component (cognitions about the emotion and associated situations) is the
thoughts and beliefs that the emotion brings along with it and seems to come into the mind
without effort, automatically. We feel joy as we have passed an exam; we think about all
that means to us.
The fourth component (facial expression), we smile, frown, look disgusted are angry.
The fifth component (a global reaction) is related to the emotion - it might blacken your
outlook on the whole world.
The sixth component (action tendency) is the behaviour that you produce in response to
an emotion, you might shout or throw things if angry.
All of these components collect to become a particular emotion that we experience.
The emotional expressions that are universal are:- Happiness, Anger, Sadness,
Disgust, Fear and Surprise. You might add guilt in here??
Where in the brain does emotion lie?
Amygdala is a centre highly related to emotion. Some suggest that anxiety disorders may
be associated with hyperactivity of the central nucleus of the amygdala (perhaps due to
increased production of endogenous anxiety-producing ligands. The amygdala is also
implicated in the negative emotion of disgust.
Researchers that have stimulated areas of the brain in order to evaluate surgical removal of
parts of the brain in the treatment of seizures have produced autonomic responses
connected to fear and anxiety (the hypothalamus) but fear was not experienced as an
emotion until the amygdala was stimulated.
Lesions of the amygdala show impairment of acquisition of a conditioned emotional
response. The startle response of a man with a localised lesion of the right amygdala was
not increased by the presence of an unpleasant emotion.
Damage to the amygdala interferes with the emotional effects on memory. If an event is
accompanied by a strong emotional response then one is more likely to remember the
event.
The part of the brain implicated in the control of rage is the Amygdala. The amygdala has
also been implicated in psychopathology.
The orbitofrontal cortex is at the base of the frontal lobes and covers the part of the brain
just above the orbits - the eye socket bones. Damage here has been examined in the
famous case of Phineas Cage, a dynamite worker whose accident sent a steel rod through
his cheek and through his brain and out through the top of his head. He survived but
changed from being industrious and energetic and serious and became childish and
irresponsible and thoughtless regarding others.
Damage here, supported by several
similar cases suggested that inhibitions and self-concern were reduced.
In addition
although they stayed sensitive to noxious stimulation the pain no longer produced an
emotional reaction that bothered them.
Animal studies with chimpanzees have shown that after removal of the frontal lobes were
removed the chimp no longer showed a temper tantrum when making an error in
performing a task that led to a food reward.
The chimp appeared to no longer be
emotionally disturbed by making mistakes. Do you think we have the right to interfere in
human's brains in order to alleviate anxiety or criminal tendencies.
Research traditions
Darwinian – (Darwin, 1872) Emotions have adaptive functions – they are universal.
Jamesian – (James, 1884) Emotions are bodily responses
Cognitive – (Arnold, 1960) Emotions are based on appraisals
Social constructivist - (Averill, 1980) Emotions are social constructions and serve social
purposes.
The Darwinian Tradition
EMOTION IS INNATE

Emotional expression is ADAPTIVE

Readiness to face challenges

Communicates intentions to others
Evidence supporting Darwin

Universal facial expressions

Infants

Basic emotions
The Jamiesian Tradition
BODILY CHANGES = EMOTION
‘We are afraid because we run’.

Experience of emotion is due to peripheral responses. Conscious aspect arises later
when the brain observes the response.

Distinguishable patterns of arousal for each emotion
Evidence in Support of James

Pattern of autonomic changes DOES vary with different emotional states.

People reliving emotional experiences show different patterns of autonomic activity

Hohmann (spinal cord injuries reduce peripheral responses – less intense emotion)
The James-Lange theory (peripheralist theory)
The James-Lange theory states that each emotion is caused by a specific physical response
to a stimulus before we can experience different emotions we have to experience different
'bodily changes' (page 401)
Emotion is inferred or constructed from instinctive peripheral physiological responses.
Events provoke body reflex responses and emotion results from the perception of those
changes. For example, smiling leads to happiness and crying to sadness (does anyone
here feel relieved after they cry? Or better afterwards?)
Support for theory
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis

If you manipulate physiological systems you may induce emotion. Artificial
manipulation of facial expression to produce smiles and frowns seems to generate the
appropriate emotion. (But Emotional experience is determined in part by feedback
from facial expressions - if you frown at people they may frown back and likewise with
smiles.)
Movements of the face provide sufficient peripheral information to fuel the experience
of emotion.
Criticism of James- Lange theory Physiological mechanisms are too slow
Not specific enough
Instead – direct CNS experience of emotion with or without feedback: thalamus indicated.
Spinal injuries that reduce autonomic feedback seem to experience normal emotional
responses.
More recent:
Various parts of CNS involved
NS is involved
Strong emotions CAN bypass cortex (thalamus to amygdala)
The Cannon Bard Theory (centralist theory)
The Canon-Bard theory of emotion suggests that Emotion (and stress) are direct
expression of central brain systems and that emotion is produced when an event or an
object is perceived by the thalamus which then conveys the relevant information
simultaneously to the cerebral cortex and to the skeletal muscles and autonomic nervous
system. Unlike James-Lange theory the cerebral cortex plays and important role in
evaluating the emotional significance of the stimulus.
Support
Stimulation of various areas of the brain provokes emotional reactions in animals.
Drugs like heroin which may be related to endorphins produce euphoria. The use of
prozac may compensate for a reduced level of serotonin. Thus clinical conditions relating
to emotion may be linked to neurotransmitters.
Criticism
The thalamus is not the ‘emotion centre of the brain. Various structures are implicated eg
the amygdala. Drugs studies show problems as drug effects on emotion are not as
straightforward as implied. Nicotine in cigarettes affects the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine. But some find smoking relaxing and other stimulating and energising.
Schachter and Singer - Cognitive Labelling theory
This involves the labelling of physiological reactions. Their research showed that the
effects of drugs depends on the person’s cognition. Subjects injected with adrenaline and
given explanations regarding its effects. If told that the drug would increase heart rate etc.
they did not experience these physiological responses as emotion. If given no explanation
but were with a confederate who pretended to feel angry or happy then they picked up on
these emotions. They experienced either of these emotions more intensely and the
adrenaline was not connected to any particular emotion.
This theory is similar to James and Lange as people label emotions using perceptions of
their own somatic activity. But labelling is a cognitive process that reflects the person’s
beliefs about a situation. If people believe they have a reason to be angry they will
perceive their bodily symptoms as anger etc. Interestingly, film-makers use music with
rhythms that mimic cardiac acceleration into soundtrack when something frightening or
exciting is going to happen.
Personality may affect mood or internal emotional state. e.g. happy to sad calm to
frustrated, peaceful to agitated.
Some aspects of mood are related to difference in
activation between the right and left frontal regions. Relatively higher activation of the left
frontal region as compared with the right is associated with positive mood and negative or
dysphoric mood is associated with higher activity of the right as compared with the left.
Changes in emotionality may appear with stroke and head injury. Heller (1990) reported
that up to 60% of people with left frontal-lobe lesions met the DSM III criteria for
diagnosis of depression. Damage to the left frontal region has been found to be associated
with major or minor depression as found in 60% stroke victims, (Starkstein & Robinson,
1988). The probability of depression is much higher in the left than the right so the
argument that a head injury might make one depressed is not sustained.
Right hemisphere damage may be euphoric and unconcerned about the physical and
psychological consequences of their brain damage. They may also show inappropriate
affect, bursting into tears for no reason as so happy when told of a sad event eg a death.
Rehabilitation of emotional functioning is especially important. We might think that
cognitive and physical disabilities would be the most dire consequences of brain injury, a
long-term study suggests that individuals who sustain head injury are most disabled by
emotional and personality disturbances (Lezak, 1987). Unfortunately, rehabilitation of
emotional functioning is especially difficult. Discussion of problems is encouraged during
psychotherapy but this requires a certain level of cognitive functioning, language skills and
interpersonal conversational skills and self-evaluation. These are all taxed in those with
brain injuries. In particular, lack of self-awareness and lack of self-evaluatory capabilities
is a problem (Prigatano, 1991).
Obviously, some of the accidents and surgery mentioned before have been rather dramatic
and have shown significant effects on emotional functioning. However, even mild head
injury can produce emotional changes including depression, anxiety, loss of patience and
increased temper (Levin, Gary et al., 1987).
Euphoria

Right hemisphere damage may reslt in euphoria and lack of concern about the
physical and psychological consequences of their brain damage. They may also show
inappropriate affect, bursting into tears for no reason as so happy when told of a sad
event eg a death.
Rehabilitation of emotional functioning is especially important - a long-term study
suggests that individuals who sustain head injury are most disabled by emotional and
personality disturbances (Lezak, 1987).
Disease
Depression (a global reaction?)

Heller (1990) reported that up to 60% of people with left frontal-lobe lesions met the
DSM III criteria for diagnosis of depression.

Damage to the left frontal region has been found to be associated with major or
minor depression as found in 60% stroke victims, (Starkstein & Robinson, 1988)

The probability of depression is much higher in the left than the right so the
argument that a head injury might make one depressed is not sustained.
Disease
Huntington's disease typically is manifested by changes in emotional functioning
(Lieberman 1979) Fifty percent have major depressive episodes or mood. This is similar
for Parkinson's disease. With Huntington's they also tend to be irritable and apathetic and
have an increased prevalence of personality disorders. Psychcoticism is not unknown but
hallucinations are rarer.
Their behaviour is reminiscent of the inappropriate behaviour of
individuals with frontal lobe damage (Cummings & Benson, 1988).
It is important to remember that mood disorders in brain-damaged patients are not always
the direct consequences of damage to the areas of the brain that mediate emotional
function. They may be a functin of understable distress at loss of cognitive function and
independence.
Inappropriate sexual behaviour
Removal of inhibitions as seen in damage to the orbitofrontal cortex may remove
inhibitions and may result in sexual advances being made in inappropriate situations.
Laughter therapy