THE GEOGRAPHER’S WORLD
(Chapters 1-4)
CHAPTER 1 – STUDYING GEOGRAPHY
SECTION 1 – THEMES AND ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
A. __________________________: study of how the natural environment influences ______________;
how people’s activities affect Earth
B. __________________________: the way a person looks at something
1. Spatial Perspective: looking for ______________________ in where and how things are arranged
2. __________________________: physical, human and cultural features of a place
C. ______________________________: study of maps and mapmaking
D. ______________________________: study of weather
E. _______________________: an area with one or more common features that make it different from
surrounding areas.
1. Formal regions can be based on almost any feature or combination of features.
Examples (3):
2. Functional regions are made up of different places that are linked together and function as a unit.
Example (1):
3. Perceptual regions reflect human feelings and attitudes.
Examples (2):
F. The Five Themes
1. __________________________: exact or relative spot of something on Earth
2. __________________________: physical and human features of a location
3. ___________________________________________: ways people and environments interrelate
4. ________________________: how people and things change locations; effects of these changes
5. ________________________: organizes Earth into areas with one or more shared characteristics
G. The Six Essential Elements
1. The World in Spatial Terms: using maps to study people, places, and _______________________
2. Places and Regions: how we ___________________ and _______________________ various
regions; human and physical features
3. ________________________ Systems: forces that shape Earth’s features; how plants and
animals relate to nonliving physical systems
4. Human Systems: causes and __________________ of human activities, government, and culture
5. Environment and _____________________: relationship between people and the environment
6. Uses of Geography: helps us understand the relationship among ________________________,
places, and environments over time; helps interpret the past and plan for the future.
SECTION 2 – SKILL BUILDING: USING THE GEOGRAPHER’S TOOLS
A. A ________________________ is a scale model of Earth
1. ________________________: measure latitude (distance) north and south from the equator
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2. ______________________: measure longitude (distance) east and west from the prime meridian.
3. Form a ______________ that allows us to locate specific places on Earth
4. Equator divides Earth into two halves or __________________________ – North and South
5. The _______________________________ divides Earth into Eastern and Western hemispheres
B. Seven continents:
C. Global oceans:
1. Smaller bodies of water include ____________, ____________, and ____________.
D. ____________: flat representations of all or part of the Earth’s surface; ____________: collection of
maps in one book
E. ___________________________: ways of presenting the round Earth on flat maps; reduce distortion.
1. Mercator map: ___________________________ projection; as if a cylinder has been wrapped
around the globe
2. ____________________ projections are designed as if a cone had been placed over the globe
3. ___________________________ maps appear to touch the globe at one point such the North
Pole or South Pole
4. __________________________________: shortest route between any two places on the planet.
F. Basic map elements include ________________________: help determine distances between points
1. __________________________: show which direction on the map is north, south, east, and west
a. _________________________________: has arrows pointing to the basic directions
2. Legend: also called a _____________; identifies the symbols on a map and what they represent
G. ________________________ Maps focus on certain kinds of information about a place or region:
1. Climate and ______________________ maps show weather patterns and atmospheric conditions
2. ________________________ maps provide a snapshot of the distribution of people in a region
3. ___________________ maps show a region’s important natural resources and ways land is used
4. ________________________ maps show the height of land above sea level.
5. _____________________________ maps show the elevation, layout, and shape of a region.
6. _______________________ maps show elevation with lines connected to points of equal elevation
H. Climate Graph: shows average __________________________ and precipitation in a place.
1. Population ________________________: shows percentages of males and females by age group
2. Geographic Information System (GIS): ________________________ system that stores, displays,
and maps locations and their features
CHAPTER 2 – EARTH IN SPACE
SECTION 1 – THE SOLAR SYSTEM
A. _____________________: huge clusters of stars; our galaxy is called the _____________________
1. Solar system: the sun and _____________________, ____________________, and comets that
revolve around it
a. moon: smaller object that orbits a planet; also called a ________________________: body that
orbits a larger body
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b. Sun, Earth, and Moon exert ________________________ forces on one another that influence
physical processes on Earth such as tides.
2. Solar (sun) energy reaches Earth as light and heat
B. Earth ___________________ once every 24 hours; ______________ the sun once every 365¼ days
1. Earth’s ___________ (23 ½ degrees) affects the amount of solar energy different places receive
SECTION 2 – EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIPS
A. Tropics: low-latitude areas near the ___________________ that receive a lot of solar energy all year
1. ___________________________: high-latitude areas surrounding the North Pole and South Pole
2. _____________________________________: areas between tropics and poles
B. ___________________________: twice each year Earth’s poles point at greatest angle toward or
away from the Sun
1. Tropic of ___________________________ (23½°S): point at which Sun’s direct rays strike Earth
during December solstice
a. areas south of the __________________________ Circle (66½°S) have 24 hours of daylight
b. areas north of the ___________________ Circle (66½°N) have 24 hours of darkness
2. Tropic of _______________________ (23½°N): point at which the Sun’s direct rays strike Earth
during June solstice
a. Arctic Circle has 24 hours of _________________; Antarctic Circle 24 hours of _____________
3. ______________________: twice each year (March and September) when neither pole is pointed
toward the sun and both hemispheres receive an equal amount of sunlight
SECTION 3 – THE EARTH SYSTEM
A. The parts (spheres) of the Earth are ___________________________: form a _________________
1. ________________________: envelope of gases that surrounds the planet
2. ________________________: solid crust of the planet
3. ________________________: all of the Earth’s water
4. ________________________: the part of Earth that includes all life forms
5. ________________________: biological, chemical, physical conditions that interact and affect life
CHAPTER 3 – WEATHER AND CLIMATE
SECTION 1 – FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE
A. Sun plays a major role in Earth’s __________________ (condition of the atmosphere at a given time
and place) and __________________ (weather conditions in a geographic region over a long time)
1. The tilt of the Earth as it revolves around the Sun causes changing ___________________
a. ___________________ and ______________ latitudes have distinct seasons
b. lower latitudes (___________________) receive the most direct sunlight and are warm all year
c. polar areas receive the least solar energy and are very ________________ all year
2. About half of the Sun’s ___________________ that reaches Earth is reflected back into space or
absorbed by the atmosphere.
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a. Earth’s surface absorbs the rest which is converted into heat and called __________________
b. greenhouse effect: Earth’s atmosphere traps ___________________________ which helps
keep the planet warm
c. ______________________________: Earth has been getting warmer since the last ice age
B. ___________________________________________: weight of the Earth’s air pushing down
1. Higher in the atmosphere, less air is pushing down; ___________________________ drops
a. air pressure changes at different places on Earth’s __________________ due to unequal solar
energy (heat)
b. heated air expands and rises creating a low-pressure system called a __________________
c. cold, dense air sinks toward Earth’s surface creating ________________________areas
2. Four major air pressure zones: equatorial _____________, subtropical highs, subpolar ________,
polar highs
a. move air between ________________ and poles; between _________________ and surface
3. Air pressure affects global wind patterns; wind always flows from high to low pressure areas
a. ______________________________: winds that blow from the same direction most of the time
b. _______________________: area along the equator with no prevailing winds
c. _______________________: prevailing winds in the mid-latitudes
d. ______________________________: prevailing winds in the high latitudes
e. ________________: two air masses of widely different temperature or moisture level meet
f. jet streams: prevailing winds in the upper atmosphere; can reach ___________ miles per hour
C. Water heats and cools more slowly than land; land near oceans does not have _________________
extremes as great as interior areas of continents
1. _______________________: rivers of seawater move heat between tropics and polar regions
a. _______________________: northward-flowing current along the U.S. East Coast
SECTION 2 – WEATHER FACTORS
A. _______________________: the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas
1. _______________________: water vapor in the air; the higher the temperature the more water
vapor air can hold
2. _______________________: when air cools to a point at which it cannot hold any more water
vapor, water changes from gas to liquid droplets; often seen as clouds, dew, fog, or frost
3. _______________________: water that falls from the sky as rain, snow, sleet, or hail
B. Increase in ___________________________ (height on Earth’s surface above sea level) causes a
drop in temperature
1. _____________________ Effect occurs when warm, moist air is pushed up a mountain, causing it
to cool, condense, and fall back to Earth as precipitation on the windward side of the mountain
2. ___________________________: drier area on the leeward side of a mountain
C. Storms: sudden, violent weather events that can cause high winds, flooding, blowing ____________,
lightening, and turbulent seas
1. Middle-latitude storms (_________________________) travel west-to-east due to prevailing winds
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a. occur along a front when cold ________________ air mixes with warm _________________ air
b. may produce ___________________________ and ___________________________
2. Tropical cyclones not produced by fronts; travel generally west due to _______________________
a. ___________________________: powerful tropical cyclones; winds can exceed 155 mph
b. ___________________________: hurricanes that occur in the Pacific Ocean
SECTION 3 – CLIMATE AND VEGETATION PATTERNS
A. Earth’s climates support a variety of ___________________________; community of plants and
animals in an area
B. Tropical climates
1. Tropical Humid: near the ____________________; warm weather and plentiful _______________
a. warm, humid, unstable air rises resulting in almost daily afternoon _______________________
b. _______________________: a seasonal wind system that creates dry and wet seasons
c. tropical ___________________________ thrive; most complex land ecosystems in the world
2. Tropical Wet and Dry: north and south of tropical humid regions
a. tropical ________________________: areas of grassland, scattered trees, and shrubs
b. _________________ summers and _________________ winters
3. ______________: dry or desert climates are centered 30° north and south of the equator
a. Result of stable high pressure areas, ____________________________, or located in the
interior of continents
b. very low rainfall; experience _______________________ extremes
c. plants and animals must be _________________; plants are sparse and tend to be low-growing
4. _______________________: transition zone between arid and more humid climates
a. vegetation tends to be ________________; humans use these areas for growing ___________
C. _______________________ climates do not experience the extreme conditions of tropical and highlatitude climates
1. Mediterranean: coastal areas of southern _______________________; west coasts of continents
with cool currents
a. long, sunny, dry _______________________; mild, rainy _______________________; plants
life includes short trees and shrubs
2. Humid Subtropical: coasts of continents with warm __________________________________
a. _________________ summers; mild winters; occasional frost and snow; hurricanes or typhoons
b. temperate forests include: _______________________ trees (lose their leaves during part of
the year) and _______________________ (trees remain green all year)
3. Marine West Coast: generally found on the ___________________________ of continents in
upper middle latitudes
a. temperatures mild all year; ____________________________ winters; warm, sunny summers
b. temperate _______________________: dense coniferous forests
4. ______________________________: interior and east coasts of upper-middle-latitude continents
a. four distinct _______________________; rain throughout the year; snow in winter; enough rain
to support _______________________
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D. Three main ____________________________________climates:
1. Subarctic: generally above ___________ latitude; long, cold winters; short, warm summers
a. _______________________forests: vast evergreen forests
2. _______________________: coastal areas in high latitudes; long, cold winters, short summers
a. ___________________: permanently frozen soil; vegetation: lichens, mosses, herbs, low shrubs
3. _______________________: polar regions and Greenland; always covered by masses of ice and
snow
a. few land plants or animals can survive; rich _______________________ecosystems
E. Highland: varied due to changing __________________________and ______________ patterns
1. Low elevations similar to surrounding areas; _____________ growth is limited at higher elevations
2. ___________________________: elevation above which trees cannot grow (about 12,000 feet)
CHAPTER 4 – LANDFORMS, WATER, AND NATURAL RESOURCES
SECTION 1 – LANDFORMS
A. _______________________: study of Earth’s physical structures and the processes that create them
1. Scientists divide Earth’s interior into _______________ zones
a. inner _______________: Earth’s center; solid; high temperature and pressure
b. outer core: mostly dense _______________________________, mainly iron and nickel
c. _______________: most of Earth’s mass; carries heat from the core to the crust
d. crust: uppermost layer; _______________ of the Earth
e. ______________: liquid rock within Earth; called ______________ when it spills on the surface
B. ___________________________________: theory that views Earth’s crust as more than a dozen
rigid, slow-moving plates
1. ___________________________________: movement of tectonic plates across the mantle
a. ____________________ and ___________________ are common near plate boundaries
b. 200 million years ago Earth’s single continent (_________________) began to break apart
C. Three types of _______________ movement: spreading (divergent), colliding (convergent), laterally
(transform)
1. ___________________________: chain of volcanic mountains caused by lava welling from a
spreading plate boundary (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
a. ________________________: caused by spreading plates under a continent (Great Rift Valley)
b. ____________________________: ocean floors away from the oceanic ridges; flat, smooth,
mud and clay
b. ________________________________: continental surface extending under shallow water
2. ___________________________: occurs when one oceanic plate slides under another; forms a
trench (deep valley)
a. oceanic plate sliding under a continental plate creates _______________ (rocks compressed
and bent) and _______________ (rocks are broken apart)
b. two continental plates colliding creates ______________________ ranges
3. Laterally moving plates form long _______________; cause low mountains and broad valleys
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D. Tectonic forces build up Earth’s surface; other forces wear it down
1. _______________________________: chemical and physical processes that break rock into
sediment (gravel, sand, mud)
2. _____________________: movement of surface material from one location to another by water,
wind, and ice
a. moving water can carve deep __________________; most rivers carry __________________
b. waves wear away shorelines, especially during _______________
c. wind causes _____________________ (blasting particles against rock); moves sand and dust
from one place to another
d. _____________________ (thick masses of ice) move and grind up rock as push outward
E. Landforms are divided into _______________ groups based on the forces that create them:
1. __________________ Processes: volcanoes, folding, faulting (mountains and some valleys)
2. __________________: slowly lowering surfaces; plateaus (elevated flatland) and plains
3. Sediment deposited by ________________________________: sand dunes; flood plains
a. _________________________: fan-shaped deposit of eroded sediment found along the bases
of mountains
b. __________________: sediment that accumulates at the mouth of a river
4. Location, shape, and size of landforms influence human __________________ and transportation
SECTION 2 – THE HYDROSPHERE
A. ___________________________: removing salt from sea water; 97% of Earth’s water is too salty for
most uses
B. ____________________________________: movement of water through the hydrosphere
1. Water evaporates, rises, cools _________________________, and falls to earth as precipitation
C. _______________________: first and smallest streams from runoff
1. __________________: smaller stream or river that flows into a larger stream or river
2. _____________________________ (drainage basin): region drained by a river and its tributaries
a. surface water may collect in __________________; large lakes can moderate climate
3. __________________: where a river meets an inlet or small arm of the sea (Chesapeake Bay)
4. ____________________: any landscape that is covered with water at least part of the year
Examples (3):
D. _________________________________: water found below ground
1. _____________________: level at which all spaces in the rocks below the soil are filled with water
E. Flood: rivers carry more water than channels can hold; floodplains are fertile ___________________
SECTION 3 – NATURAL RESOURCES
A. _________________: any physical material that is part of the Earth and that people need and value
1. Soil: mixture of rocky sediment and _________________________ (decayed plants and animals)
a. develops very slowly; forms layers called _________________________ (soil profile)
b. A horizon (upper layer) is ____________________; rich in humus; many plant roots
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2. ____________________________: downward movement of minerals and humus in soil
B. Producing the world’s ________________ depends on soil, especially A horizons
1. _________________________: works across the hill rather than up and down; prevents erosion
2. ___________________________________: soil becomes nearly useless because crops have
drawn out all the nutrients;
a. usually caused by planting the same crop __________________________________
b. ___________________________: planting different crops in different years
3. _______________________: artificially supplying water to land; can lead to soil ______________
(buildup of salt in soil)
C. Forests protect soil from ______________________, provide habitats, and yield useful products
Examples (3):
1. __________________________________: destruction or loss of forests
2. __________________________________: replanting forests
D. All living things need the ___________________ in air to survive; pollution threatens the air supply
1. Acid Rain: caused by pollution combining with __________________________________
E. In many parts of the world maintaining a dependable supply of _____________________________ is
a major challenge
1. __________________________________: artificial channels for transporting water
2. _________________________: rock layers where groundwater is stored
3. _________________________: water deposited in aquifers long ago that is not being replenished
F. ___________________________: solid substances that come out of the ground
1. List three uses of minerals:
2. Recycling minerals saves _________________________ resources and energy; reduces pollution
G. Nonrenewable energy resources include
1. Called fossil fuels because they formed from remains of ancient _________________ and animals
2. _________________ provides energy for nuclear power plants; disposal is a problem
3. _______________ is plentiful and easy to mine; unburned minerals in coal create pollution
4. Oil and natural gas are also used to generate ____________________, heat homes, and many
other things
5. Oil is the source of ____________________________; used to make explosives, food additives,
medicines, pesticides, and plastics
H. Renewable energy sources:
1. _________________________________: produced by moving water is widely used
2. Windmills have been used for centuries; wind ___________________ create electricity
3. ___________________ power plants capture the heat of Earth’s interior
4. Solar energy: captured by special panels and converted to ___________________
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