English Linguistics (Phonology)
Week 1
English Linguistics (Phonology)
Lecture Notes
Week 1: Review: Phonetics
Course Website: http://www.f.waseda.jp/tharada/phonology/index.htm
Source: Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2006). An Introduction to Language (8th ed).
Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.
General Issues
1. What are phonetics and phonology?
phonetics = the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those
sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.
phonology = a branch of linguistics which studies the sound systems of languages
2. Language is rule-based.
私はエロ文学専攻です。 （アメリカ英語話者）
昨日ネコを食べました。 （アラビア語話者）
監獄から来ました。
（韓国語話者）
Shit down, please!
（日本語話者）
3. Why phonetics & phonology?
1) Linguistic theories
2) Second language acquisition
3) Pedagogical application (e.g., predict and identify learners’ pronunciation errors; correct
learners’ errors; curriculum development; materials development; evaluation)
4) Audio instruments (e.g., tape recorder, telephone)
5) Computer technology (digitalization): speech recognition and production
6) Forensic phonetics
Rationale for the use of phonetic symbols
Writing systems do not correlate with the phonetic inventory of the language
本も
本と
本が
ほんも
ほんと
ほんが
* The Hiragana syllabary fails to isolate the individual sounds of Japanese.
* The Romanization does not reflect the actual sounds.
In 1888 members of the International Phonetic Association developed the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA), which includes enough symbols to represent the fundamental sounds of all
languages.
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Speech Organs
QuickTimeý Dz
TIFF (LZW) êLí£ÉvÉçÉOÉâÉÄ
ǙDZÇÃÉsÉNÉ`ÉÉǾå©ÇÈǞǽDžÇÕïKóvÇ­Ç•
ÅB
alveolar ridge = tooth-ridge
soft palate = velum
uvula
Description of consonants
How do we identify these sounds? What do we need to tell one from the other in each pair?
た（ta）
だ（da）
さ（sa）
た（ta）
た（ta）
ぱ（pa）
ば（ba）
ま（ma）
Voicing = the vibration of the vocal cords
Place of articulation = the place in the mouth where the sound is made
Manner of articulation = the way the airstream is affected (e.g., blocked, partially blocked) as it
flows from the lungs up and out of the mouth and nose.
Voicing
Voiced sounds = sounds produced with the vibration of the vocal cords
Voiceless sounds = sounds produced without the vibration of the vocal cords
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Manner of Articulation
Stops: Complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the
mouth. There are two possible types of stops: oral stops and nasal stops.
Fricatives: Close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and
turbulent airflow is produced.
Affricates: Combination of a stop immediately followed by a fricative (the air is blocked at a certain
place of articulation but then is released with a partial blockage.)
Approximants: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal
tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced.
liquids (with partial contact in the mouth): a cover term for laterals and various forms of r-sounds,
as in English [r]
glides (without any contact in the mouth): a cover term for [w] and [j]
Nasals: The velum is lowered and a complete obstruction occurs in the oral cavity (in this sense,
nasals are stops). However, the airflow passes freely through the nasal cavity.
Flap: The tongue tip is drawn back and then allowed to strike against the alveolar ridge in returning to
its rest position.
Degree of narrowing (of the articulators)
Stops > Nasals > Flaps > Affricates > Fricatives > Approximants > Vowels
Place of Articulation
Bilabial: Made with the two lips.
Labiodental: Lower lip and upper front teeth.
Dental: Tongue tip or blade and upper front teeth.
Alveolar: Tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.
Palato-Alveolar: Tongue blade and the back of the alveolar ridge.
Examples: [ʃ, ʒ]（し、じ／ぢ）
[tʃ, dʒ]（ち、じ／ぢ）
Compare: はじ、じかん
word-initial:
word-medial:
Palatal: Front of the tongue and hard palate.
Examples: ç （ひ）
Velar: Back of the tongue and soft palate.
Japanese Consonants & IPA Symbols
ひらがな
=
IPA
し
=
ʃi
じ／ぢ
=
ʒi
ち
=
tʃi
じ／ぢ
=
dʒi
Note the following phonetic symbols.
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が
=
が (medial) =
ひ
=
ふ
=
や
=
ら
=
ん
=
Week 1
ɡa
ŋa
çi
ɸɯ
ja
ɾa
m, n, ŋ, etc.
Description of Japanese vowels
Difficulty Describing Vowels
1) How do we judge the actual point and degree of raising of the tongue?
– there are no distinct boundaries between one type of vowel and another.
– vowel sounds form a continuum.
2) Is it helpful to relate the vowel quality to a value used in a particular language?
Solutions to these problems
1) Use a scale based on the auditory and articulatory levels
2) Set up a scale for describing vowels, which is something like units used for measuring, for example,
weight (lb or kg) and distance (miles or km).
The Cardinal Vowel Scale (devised by Daniel Jones)
1) Articulatory Levels (physiological)
Set the two qualities on which all the others are based
the cardinal vowel [i]
the front of the tongue raised as close as possible to the palate without
friction being produced (one articulatorily extreme vowel)
the cardinal vowel [ɑ]
the whole of the tongue as low as possible in the mouth, with very
slight raising at the extreme back
2) Auditory Levels (depending on your ears)
a. Starting from the [i] position, lower the front of the tongue gradually.
b. Stop the lowering at three points at which the vowel qualities seem to be equi-distant. (Note the
point where the sound quality clearly changes.)
c. Assign the symbols [e, ɛ, a] to these vowels.
d. Starting from the [ɑ] position, raise the back of the tongue gradually while changing the lips
progressively from a wide open shape (for [ɑ]) to a closely rounded one (for [u]).
e. Establish three auditorily equi-distant points.
f. Assign the symbols [ɔ, o, u] to these vowels.
g. Listen to the actual Cardinal Vowels and imitate them as closely as possible.
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Front
[i]
Central
Back
[u]
い
う
High
[e]
[o]
Mid
え
お
[O]
[E]
Low
あ
[A]
[a]
This diagram is obtained by plotting the highest point of tongue raising for each of the primary
cardinal vowels and joining the points together (Gimson, 1989).
Japanese Vowels from the Standpoint of the Cardinal Vowel Scale
J [i] = close to C [i], but a little lowered
J [e] = between C [e] and C [ɛ]
J [a] = between C [a] and C [ɑ]
J [o] = between C [ɔ] and C [o]
J [ɯ] = more centralized than [u] and unrounded
Criteria for the description of vowels
1) lip rounding
2) the part of the tongue which is raised
3) the degree of raising
Japanese Vowels
J [i] = unrounded high front vowel
J [e] = unrounded mid front vowel
J [a] = unrounded low central vowel
J [o] = rounded mid back vowel
J [ɯ] = unrounded high back vowel
Questions
What are voicing, the place of articulation, and the manner of articulation for the first consonant of
each word?
Voicing
Place
Manner
Tetsuo Harada
早稲田大学
___________
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スマップ
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千代田区
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