RE-EXPLORING CULTIVATED RICE ORIGIN
IN HUAI BASIN
REN Zhong, MA Shaolin & REN Erping
(Agricultural Archaeology 1998(1):183-187. Translated/interpreted by W. Tsao, Ph.D.,5/2/01; edited by B. Gordon)
On the origin of Chinese rice cultivation, Ren Zhong said in Exploring Prehistoric Agriculture on
the lower Huai River(1) that its rice originated locally and did not propagate from Hemudu of the lower
Yangtze River. This point is somewhat vague and needs further discussion and clarification. The origin
of rice cultivation by various Chinese schools of thought has gained recent world attention, especially in
the Huai basin, but we think archaeological rice age and richness is the sole factor determining the origin
of cultivation. Most scholars suggest studying environmental change of living things, including human,
plus background factors involving the change from wild to cultivated rice. We agree and shall explore
Huai River cultivation origin along this line, but we must first define Huai basin geography. According
to History of Chinese water conservancy and History of Huai River water conservancy, the basin is west
from Tongbai Mountain, east to the sea and north-south from Yellow to Yangtze Rivers. It includes east
Henan, south Shandong, and north Jiangsu and Anhui; at 31-35o N.Lat. and 112-121o E.Long.
1. Huai basin families formed from local groups
As the main source of the gentle Huai River is rain, floods are less frequent and severe than
Yangtze and Yellow Rivers. Its basin’s topography (slopes, flats, rivers, streams, lakes, swamps), mild
weather and adequate rainfall made it ideal for all ancient life. In 1997, the China Science Institute and
Jiangsu Water System Working Team excavated 12-15-million-year old fossil teeth of shuang gou zui
yuan (Shuanggou drunken apes) in Songlin manor, Tiangonhu village, Shihong County, with more teeth
of Jiang Huai kuan chi yuan (Jiang-Huai broad-toothed apes) in 1981-2. Both are Jiang Huai gu yuan
(Jiang-Huai ancient apes). They slowly evolved to anthropoid apes, with recent 4-500,000 year-old yi
yuan yuan ren fossils (Yiyuan anthropoid apes)(3) at the juncture of Yi and Huai Rivers, Yiyuan County,
3-400,000 year-old anthropoid ape skulls of he xian yuan ren (He County anthropoid apes)(4) in He
County site, middle Huai River, and 2-300,000 year-old zhi ren (wise men or hominids). In June, 1954,
Prof. Yang Zhongjian of the Research Institute of Ancient Anthropology and Palaeontology excavated
40-50,000-year old zhi ren late stage femurs of xia cao wen ren (Xiacaowen man) or si hong sin ren
(Sihong New man)(5) at the Xiacaowen site in Sihong County on the middle Huai. He found them to be
the earliest in Jiangsu Province; their morphological traits very recent and suggesting matrilineality and
intermarriage. They made skin clothing and simple hunting and fishing tools(6). In 1981, points and
knives in the 1500 sq. m Huoshiling site ca. 1 km SE of Xiacaowen, are likely xia cao wen ren(7).
Palaeolithic chipped stone tools are in Yi, Mu, Shi, etc., on the lower Huai, mostly in Yiyuan,
Yibei, Xintai, Rizhao and Tancheng Counties in Shandong(8) and Picheng, Xinyi, Shihong and Ganqian
counties and Lianyungang in Jiangsu(9). They include agate, flint and purple quartz scraper-knives,
keeled and multi-sided cores and quartz and other detritus. Thousands of Zhaodun Culture(10) coarse
large cores, flagstones and balls, plus arrowheads, points and some fine tools in the Zhaodunshan site in
Jiangsu between Xinyi and Donghai Cities, imply villages. In sum, Hominids were active in Huai basin
from 12-15 million year-old Jiang Huai gu yuan, through apes to anthropoid apes, to zhi ren and from
Neolithic to Palaeolithic ages. If we accept Huai basin families evolved from local groups, we can
explore the Huai basin origin of rice cultivation.
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2. Many Huai basin rice varieties
Besides 12-15-million-year old Jiang Huai gu yuan teeth at Songlin site, 64 animal species(11)
are mammoth, hornless rhinoceros, saber-toothed tiger, giraffe, Dahe wild cat, water snake, etc. The
Xiacaowen site has 65 species(12) (6 fish, 6 reptilian, 5 avian, 1 amphibian and 47 mammalian, including
3 primates). These Tertiary, Cenozoic and Miocene fossils are the largest Chinese and East Asian
vertebrate group, a fossil treasure(13) of Chinese and foreign scholars alike for valuable data in studying
species origin, evolution and propagation. Their discovery implies ancient warm and humid weather and
rapid vegetative growth.
What happened to Huai basin glacial animals? Were they exterminated? Recent excavations of
their distribution, species and age suggest they were not, with one group of original species surviving.
Million year-old Pleistocene mammals occur at the Mudien, Hongshan, Gusang, Shiliyin sites in Xuyi
County(14), while 6-10,000 year-old Palaeolithic animals are in 23 sites in 15 areas in Pizhou City(15).
Rhinoceros, Asian elephant, horse, deer, etc., in Taohuajian site and exhibited at Lianyungang Hotel, are
contemporaneous or younger than their 19,080 year-old lake sediments(16). Approximately 10,000 yearold deer, boar, water buffalo and elk are generally found 4 m subsurface(17). An 8,000-year old elephant
skull was found in the Yilin riverbed, Suqian City, in 1980. Fossil elephant (tusks to 3 m)(18), pig,
roebuck, deer, cow and mussels occur in >20 counties in Jiangsu, Anhui, and Shandong. As they show
some glacial animals and plants survived, special climates formed under the following two conditions:
(1) Climatic influence at glacial maximum. Variable cold during maximum glaciation created climatic
belts. From high to lower latitudes, lower Yangtze and middle Huai glacial climate was less severe
than Europe or continental glaciation to the west. Even today, western highland glacial remains are
easier to recognize than those on the east coast(19). Middle and lower Huai glacial climate was milder
than continental and mountain areas, but with a more frequent freeze-thaw cycle. Yang Huairen and
Yang Senyuan say “Quaternary glacial phenomenon in mountains along the Yangtze formed mainly
by soil melt, explaining cold humid climate. Although much snow accumulated, temperature was not
extremely low, with frequent winter freezing and summer melting causing regionally different soil
melt”(20). Its odd climate involves geomorphologic, climatologic, soil science and biologic studies.
(2) Influence of Xuyi volcanic eruption in middle Huai River. Pleistocene volcanic eruptions of Datong
in Shanxi, Tengchong in Yunnan and Xuyi in Jiangsu, doubtless warmed climate and protected
species from temperature extremes. From climatic research at the glacial limit and Xuyi eruption, Xu
Yunfeng suggested “the first Cretaceous rice was indica or xian, only mutating to japonica or keng
after surviving the peculiar glacial environment”(21). Contemporaneously, 7-8,000 year-old japonica
was found in Jiahu on the upper Huai and Longquizhuang on the lower Huai. Wild rice varieties also
occur in 29 locations in Lianyungang, Jiangsu, the variety from Donghai japonica. As historic data
show wild rice varieties in Yangzhou, Gaoyou, Taizhou, Suzhou, Caozhou, etc., it is reasonable to
believe Huai basin is an origin of rice cultivation.
3. Huai basin is an important origin of rice cultivation
The aforementioned family and animal evolution, and Huai basin wild rice species, support good
conditions for rice cultivation origin, but to prove it one must explore local rice civilizations, man’s
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ability to control nature and cultivate wild rice, implication of rice remains, etc. The following are some
points concerning the origin of rice cultivation:
(1) Incipient agriculture started in Huai basin – While Chinese scholars believe agriculture began 810,000 years ago, China’s huge territory favors different starts, with Huai basin 10,000 years ago in
the glacial period, based on: (a) the Xiacaowen being village hunter-gatherers, supplemented with
crops cultivated by children, elders and women; (b) even under glaciation, they may have had milder
weather, with temperature fluctuation limiting hunting only in winter, when stored food and seeds
were used; i.e., the likely beginning of agriculture; (c) recent finds of sun stones or Taiyangshi atop
Yuwen mountain and Jiangjunya rock paintings in Lianyungang. Li Hongpu say Taiyangshi is where
primitive families worshipped the sun(22), while Zhang Peichi says the sun, cereal seedling, people,
animal and star paintings imply a sun-influenced biological chain, plus the 12-30,000 year-old altar
to Tian huang (heavenly ruler)(23). All suggest lower Huai agriculture began 12-30,000 years ago.
(2) Higher growth of primitive civilization in Huai basin based on (a) large concentration of Neolithic
villages. Ca. 100 sites are in 20,000 sq. km of 13 counties between modern Huaiyang and Suchian
on the old river, 23 sites in Xuyi County, 15 in Shiyang County, 15 in Suyu County and 18 in
Muyang County. Zhaozhuang in Shiyang is larger (300,000 sq. m) than Wanpi in Muyang (200,000
sq. m) and Zhudun in Shiyang (150,000 sq. m), much bigger than world famous Banpo. Simple
rectangular houses occur where families settled in Wanpi, Qinliangang in Huaian, Tianganghu in
Shihong, Bancishan in Huaiyang, etc. In public family burials near houses, some were buried with
head east and covered with a red clay bowl; (b) Many stone and bone artifacts and other tools occur:
stone unifacial and bifacial axes, perforated flat axes, adzes, spades, sickles, knives, plates, mills,
pestles, spindle wheels, arrowheads, etc.; bone needles, hammers, spears, spades, daggers, plough,
arrowheads, deer antler and shell sickles, etc.; clay spindle wheels, fishnet sinkers, pestles, etc. Dry
and wet rice was cultivated because the shape and use of their tools resemble those north and south.
(3) Many Huai basin primitive rice finds – in History of Chinese Rice Cultivation, You Xiuling lists 75
Neolithic sites, only 15 >5,000 years old. Recently, rice was in 10,000 year-old Yuzhanyan site, Dao
County, Hunan; four 7-9,000 year-old middle Yangtze sites, three 7-8,000 year-old upper Wuyuang
sites and lower Huai Gaoyou and Lianyungang areas. Partial data suggests 7,000 year-old rice on the
middle (Dinyuan & Feixi areas) and lower (Huaian, Donghai, etc.) Huai. The few dry cereals are
carbonized millet at Dadunzi site in Pizhou and carbonized sorghum leaves and stems at Sanlidun
site in Xinchi. The many rice finds suggest Huai basin is an origin of rice cultivation.
(4) Advanced Huai basin rice culture - The classic Shi Ji (Xia Dynasty Book) says Yu dredged nine
rivers (including the Huai in the Tongbo area after his father failed) and ordered the Bo to teach rice
planting in low-lying fields. Yu later married, settling on Too Mountain, a hillock on the south Huai
bank in Huaiyuan County, Anhui Province. The reason why the character dao (rice) first appeared in
Huai basin is Bo Yi (Xu Rong family leader of Huai Yi) started agriculture there after helping Yu to
dredge. Appearing in a divine forecast is a Yin-Shang Dynasty (1766-1121 BC) account of Di Xin
invading Xuyi in Huai basin, where a character has mi (rice) and lu (no proper English meaning), the
name of Xuyi County in Jiangsu. According to ancient Chinese literature experts, this word may be
equivalent to dao (rice) or su (pulses). Also appearing are Lingfang and Tuokou, which Xu Yunfong
said are placenames in Hongzzhe Lake and Anhui Province(25). Another classic Zuo Zhuan notes an
official meeting in Shan Dao (Good Way) in Xiang Gong (king) in Zhou Dynasty 5thyear (1122-255
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BC). Good Way changed in the same book to Good Rice, which later Qing Dynasty scholars noted
was Xuyi County. Wuhe, Sihong and Xuyi all belonged to the strong Dong Yi state of Xu along the
Yangtze, Huai and Yellow Rivers and once “led nine Yi peoples in the invasion of Zhou all the way
west”(26). These events reflect Huai basin strong agricultural strength and long rice history.
4. Japan rice cultivation introduced from Huai basin
In 1978, Su Binqi said to understand Qingliangang cultural divergence “it’s possible one or more
important cultures existed, as preliminary research suggests a huge uncovered treasure”(27). Indeed, the
new 7-8,000 year-old Longqiuzhuang, Wanpi, Jiahu, Jiangjunya, etc., sites proved his prediction after
<20 years hard work. Were these cultures independent or externally influenced? Zhang Min and Tang
Linhua said “7,000 year-old Houli and Beixing cultures in Haidai differ from east Jiang-Huai culture
stage 1”, the latter with “no similarity to Hemudo and Majiabin cultures”(28). If Jiang-Huai stage 1 has
no direct south and north connection, its rice culture was not likely introduced or influenced.
Rice farming spread 5-6,000 years ago in Middle Neolithic, first from Yangtze and Huai basins
to many surrounding 5,000 year-old rice sites. In the 1990’s, a 5,000 year-old 60x50x4 m Liangzhu
culture pyramidal structure was found in Zaolingshan site in Jiangnan, Kuanshan, Zhangpu, plus a SEfacing wood coffin, both cultural firsts(29). 5,000-year-old Luzhuang site in Jiangbei, Puning, shows
northward Liangzhu cultural movement, solving its Tai Lake disappearance 4,200 years ago. Liangzhu
tool traits at Jiang-Huai suggest lower Yangtze rice culture spread to Jiang-Huai in war and through
growth. In fact, the Liangzhu find confirms a Zhong Yuan war between Ci You (Liangzhu family leader)
and Xian Yuan Huang Di (Yellow Emperor)(30). Simultaneously, archaeologists compared pottery, tools,
art, burials, rice farming, etc. with Japanese Yayoi culture, their astonishing similarity clues to why east
Jiang-Huai culture disappeared 5,000 years ago, likely north on the coast to Shandong, then across the
Yellow Sea via Korea’s south tip to Japan(31). This suggests the 5,000 year-old Yangtze south shore rice
culture did not influence Huai basin. When Liangzhu culture reached Jiang-Huai 4,200 years ago, the
Jiang-Huai culture, especially its rice traits, had already reached Japan, suggesting Huai basin is the
original source of Japanese rice cultivation.
5. Discussion
Research on the origin of Chinese rice cultivation is a hard complex task needing much scientific
training. After 50 years, scholars can answer some aspects, including origin of cultivation (below):
(1) Origin of rice cultivation. Rice had many origins throughout China, including Yungui Plateau, and
rivers of the middle and lower Yangtze, and upper and lower Huai. All had different environments
and rich rice remains, but their different cultures, labor force, times, cultivation stage and expansion
created major and minor origins of rice cultivation. Huai River is a major origin of rice cultivation
because it not only influenced Yangtze and Yellow basins, but also Japanese rice cultivation.
(2) Rice cultivation timing and spread. As cultural growth, agricultural knowledge and transport were
quite primitive in the 7-10,000 year-old Early Neolithic, wide contact and distant rice spread were
impossible, as were equating 8,000 and 9,000 year-old origins. Techniques and spread improved in
the 5-7,000 year-old Middle Neolithic, but was initially limited to certain areas; e.g.s, Tai Lake was
influenced by Hemudo culture; middle Yangtze by Pengtoushan culture; Huai by Longqiuzhuang
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and Erjiancun cultures; and upper and lower Huai River by Jiahu culture. In the 5,000 year-old Late
Neolithic, rice culture spread widely, along with expansion from clans and war. We welcome
comments from our colleages.
REFERENCES
(1) Agricultural Archaeology, No. 3, 1996
(2) Topography of Huaiyang City, No. 44
(3) Guangmin Daily News, May 7, 1982
(4) Chinese Ancient History, by Zan Ciqing and Tien Zhebin, Vol. 1
(5) Topography of Huaiyang City, No. 46
(6) Folklore of Huaiyang city (ed. by Huaiyang Educational Committee)
(7) See (5)
(8) Chinese History of Agriculture, No. 4, 1991
(9) Agricultural Archaeology, No. 2, 1985
(10) History of Jiangsu Province, Vol. 1
(11) See (2)
(12) See (2)
(13) See (2)
(14) Historic and cultural information of Xuyi County, Vol. 4
(15) Xinhua Daily News, June 30, 1989
(16) See (10)
(17) Topography of Muyang County
(18) Data provided by Suqian City Cultural Management Committee and Huaiyang city Museum
(19) Geomorphology, Pub. People’s Educational Publication Co., 1978
(20) Chinese History of Agriculture, No. 2, 1995
(21) See (20)
(22) See (9)
(23) Chinese History of Agriculture, No. 1, 1996
(24) See (5)
(25) Chinese History of Agriculture, No. 2, 1992
(26) Chinese Classics – Hou Han Shu, Dong Yi Zhuan
(27) History of Xu State, Pub. Nanjing University Publish Co.
(28) Agricultural Archaeology, No. 3, 1996
(29) Yangtze Evening News, September 11, 1995
(30) Yangtze Evening News, July 25, 1995
(31) Yangtze Evening News, 1996, reported by Yang Ziming
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