Guidance Notes for Tutors
Section 5: Writing for Higher Education
Introduction
The quality of student writing in higher education has been the subject of
critical attention in recent years. The topic was the focus of a major study by
the Royal Literary Fund in 2006 that highlighted the struggle many students
appear to have to write well-organised and cogent assignments and
dissertations.
In particular, students struggle with issues of structure and paraphrasing, and
also to resolve a tension they feel between expressing their ‘own voice’ in
assignments, and satisfying the conventions of academic writing.
This is an issue that concerns many academics, and is currently being
addressed by both the LearnHigher and the Write Now Centres of Excellence
in Teaching and Learning (CETLs): the former, with the Writing Across the
Curriculum (WAC) project in the Academic Writing learning area; and the
Writing for Assignments E-library (WrAssE) project in the Critical Thinking
learning area; and in the latter CETL, the Student Authorship project, which
addresses the issue of the relationship between writers and the facts, ideas
and arguments expressed in their work.
Both CETLs are interested in developing resources for students and staff that
demonstrate how authorship in academic writing can be established.
These resources will include examples of cogent writing, as it has been
argued that students need to be shown what most tutors would regard as
effective essays to become more aware of what is expected of them.
This Section is divided into five Units:
1
Unit 1: Good Writing
Unit 2: Writing Essays
Unit 3: Writing Reports
Unit 4: Avoiding Plagiarism
Unit 5: Sample Essay
As with other sections, the units offer a mix of information and student
exercises. Units1, 4 and 5 offers sufficient material for a 50-60 minute
teaching session on each of these.
However, Unit 2 and 3 could be usefully combined over two teaching
sessions; there are three student exercises in Unit 2, but only one in Unit 3.
Teaching tips are included, and these are drawn fro HE tutors who have
successfully used the material in the past.
Answers to the quizzes and exercises are supplied in these notes, along with
additional comment where relevant.
2
Unit 1: Good Writing
Unit discusses the idea, that to be taken seriously, you must present valid
evidence in assignments. Aristotle, around 350 BC, argued that persuasive
rhetoric included Logos: appeals to logic to persuade an audience through
sound reasoning. This is done by presenting reliable evidence, usually in the
form of facts, definitions, statistics and other data, that has an appeal to the
intelligence of an audience.
Aristotle also believed that appeals to the emotions (Pathos), and emphasis
on the credibility of the speaker (Ethos), were also necessary elements in
rhetoric to persuade an audience to accept a particular argument.
Although Aristotle applied his ideas to oratory, this ageless principle can be
applied equally to written arguments, and, indeed, Aristotle’s ideas are the
foundation for the current thinking in the communication industries.
Aristotle’s ideas, however, appear to have overlooked by some academic
writers, and many students, particular in the Social Sciences, are asked to
read academic texts that can baffle, rather then enlighten their readers. The
following extract is such an example:
Garfinkel (1967) argues that the relationship between the act of representation
and represented object is dialectical not unidirectional.
The character of the representation changes in the attempt to explain the
perceived nature of underlying reality while the object ‘changes’, in turn, to
accommodate the language employed to represent it.
Representation, in other words, is a dynamic, interactive process in which the
‘actor’, and the form of representation, that is language, ‘constructs’ some at
least of the reality under investigation.
This type of writing can intimidate students – or worse, lead them to imitate it.
3
But the best academic writing has always been accessible to all intelligent
readers. The following extract by Anthony Giddens has been included to
demonstrate this, and to illustrate how Aristotle’s Pathos element can be
applied in academic writing.
The Giddens extract
As the changes described in this article gather weight, they are creating
something that has never existed before, a global cosmopolitan society. We are
the first generation to live in this society, whose contours we can only dimly see.
It is shaking up our existing ways of life, no matter where we happen to be. This
is not – at least at the moment – a global order driven by collective human will.
Instead, it is emerging in an anarchic, haphazard fashion, carried along by a
mixture of influences.
It is not settled or secure, but fraught with anxieties, as well as scarred by deep
divisions. Many of us feel in the grip of forces over which we have no power. Can
we reimpose our will upon them? Arguably we can. The powerlessness we
experience is not a sign of personal failings, but reflects the incapacities of our
institutions. We need to reconstruct those we have, or create new ones. For
globalization is not incidental to our lives today. It is a shift in our very life
circumstances. It is the way we live now.
Extract taken from: Giddens, A. (1999). Runaway World: how globalization is
reshaping our lives. London: Profile Books.
Students were asked to comment in the three areas shown below.
Our comments are supplied, but Trans:it students may supply additional
insights, which may prove equally valid and helpful.
4
The style of writing
Clear, inclusive, and accessible writing.
generally
Good structure.
Giddens is confident and assertive, which reflects his expertise
and experience in this area.
The impact of some
Giddens uses words that connect with the senses of the
of the words: single
reader, or are related to physical action. There were terms
out a few words that
like ‘dimly see’, and words that connect with physical
have a particular
sensation: ‘shaking’, ‘driven’, ‘weight’, and ‘carried’.
impact on you and
try and say why this
The author also uses contrast to create a tension (and
is.
interest) in the writing, e.g.
It is not settled or secure, but fraught with anxieties, as
well as scarred by deep divisions
Note the term ‘scarred by deep divisions’. Giddens uses the
word ‘scarred’ in a symbolic way to describe cultural divisions
(and blemishes) among peoples of the world.
However, the word also resonates with our sense of sight; we
can visualize a scar, so the impact of the word is likely to be
more profound and meaningful to us.
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The way the writing
Giddens addresses and engages the reader directly, or
tries to appeal to the
addresses our concerns. He uses words such as: ‘we’; ‘us’;
reader.
‘life’; ‘lives’; ‘human will’. He also brings us into the discussion
by posing a rhetorical question.
Giddens recognizes the vulnerability and fragility of
individuals who may feel swept along by global events.
However, he also appeals to the more optimistic side of
people, and presents the case for globalization as one of
opportunity:
Can we reimpose our will upon them? I believe we can.
The powerlessness we experience is not a sign of
personal failings, but reflects the incapacities of our
institutions. We need to reconstruct those we have, or
create new ones.
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Unit 2: Writing Essays
As this is an important issue for students, there are three exercises in Unit 2,
and it may be necessary to spread these over two teaching sessions.
The first exercise is to encourage students to focus on essay topics or
questions, as a common cause of poor marks in assignments is that the
student in question ‘did not address the question’. HE tutors will comment that
students often attempt to tell all they know on a subject, but do not select and
apply this knowledge to a specific area of enquiry or investigation.
Students were asked to look at the following essay title and identify key words
and the proposition.
Evaluate the impact of the internet on practices for recruitment and
selection employed by firms.
Identify key words in the essay title
The key words are:
Spot the proposition in the sentence
It proposes that the Internet HAS
had an impact on recruitment and
‘evaluate’:
selection; it stresses the words ‘the
‘impact’
impact’, which suggests there has
‘recruitment’,
been one.
‘selection’
‘firms’.
(See comments that follow)
(See comments that follow)
The question asks students to ‘evaluate’ the ‘impact’ of the internet on both
recruitment and selection practices. Students would also briefly need to define
these terms to show they understand what is meant by them
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The word ‘and’ is quite significant, as it suggests there are two separate
processes here: the recruitment process and the selection process. Students
would need to look for evidence of the impact of the Internet, negative and
positive, on both of these processes.
The term ‘firms’ is plural, meaning students need to look at more than one
organisation to make comparisons, perhaps between firms of different sizes
The proposition in the statement would have been harder for students to
detect.
It proposes that the Internet has had an impact on recruitment and selection; it
stresses the words ‘the impact’, which suggests there has been one. .
So students are being asked to think about whether or not they agree that this
proposition is correct – they do have to agree with it. For example, if they
disagreed with the proposition, they could argue that the Internet has had little
impact or no impact on recruitment and selection – assuming they could find
evidence to support this position.
Provocative tasks
The point is that assignment tasks, particularly essays, often invite students to
take up and support a position with reliable evidence.
There is unlikely to be a ‘right’ answer to many essay questions. Tutors are
testing the student’s ability to research and weigh up evidence, take up a
considered position, and present a particular argument in an intelligent and
coherent way. It is worth emphasising that tutors may not agree with the
position taken by a student, but will certainly respect a writer’s ability to argue
their case in an intelligent way.
8
The two main positions that students might take in this essay, for example,
are:
Agree generally
Agreeing with the proposition and
Disagree generally
Disagreeing that there has been an
presenting evidence and summarising ‘impact’, or that it has been very
why you agree.
limited, and presenting evidence and
discussing why you feel this to be the
case.
Students start to ‘evaluate’ when they do this, as they are making a decision
on the proposition and, in this case, assessing the importance of the Internet
to both the recruitment and selection processes.
What else?
In evaluating the impact of the internet, students would also need to weigh up
the value (if any) of the Internet against non-electronic ways of engaging with
the recruitment and selection processes.
Description and Analysis
A recurring tutor criticism of student writing is that there is often ‘too much
description and not analysis’.
This form of independent critical thinking may be unfamiliar to students
…who in the past have been rewarded by their tutors for presenting
accurate description of established ideas. The prospect of challenging
the say-so of ‘experts’ can, at first, feel daunting, and even subversive.
(Tutor quoted in Neville 2009, p.56)
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This is particularly the case with discursive style essays, but it is important to
emphasis to students that in science, technology and numerical disciplines
precise description can also be a form of analysis.
This can involve focusing on a topic in a detailed way. In many science and
technology disciplines, for example, this focus can include the observation
and identification of variables, element parts, and structures. In this context,
the analysis is in the detailed description that you present. Students are likely
to be asked in these assignments to:
Classify
Describe
Identify
Show how
Or answer ‘what’ or ‘how’ style questions
However, in this Unit students have been asked to decide if the essay extracts
presented are predominantly description or analysis, or a combination of the
two. The exercise is preceded by the following brief description of each of
these categories:
Descriptive
Analytical
Combine Description
and Analysis
You present a situation
Analytical paragraphs
Typically these
in a factual way, usually
often follow on from one
paragraphs start with an
presenting an overview
that was largely
introductory statement
of the situation, which
descriptive.
(setting the scene),
might include data to
In these paragraphs,
which is then followed
back up factual
you would
by a deeper probe or
statements made.
explore/discuss the
discussion, including
implications or impact of
examples, into or on the
the situation earlier
implications/impact of
described.
the situation in question.
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Extract
Description Analysis
Both
1. The Internet is a system of
connecting computers around the
√
world. Linked to this is the ‘Intranet’,
which is a way organisations can
communicate internally. The
population connected to the Internet
in 1999 totalled some 196 million
people, predicted to rise to over 500
million by the end of 2003. By the
start of 2000, the daily number of
Emails sent exceeded – each day –
the number sent in total for the whole
of 1990.
2. The Internet has had a significant
impact on the way both firms and job
√
seekers seek each other out. In
Britain in 2000, for example, the
Chartered Institute of Personnel
estimated that 47 per cent of all
employers were making use of the
Internet for recruitment purposes
(Dale 2003). In the USA the
Association of Internet Recruiters
estimated that 45 per cent of
companies surveyed had filled one in
five of their vacancies through on-line
recruiting (Charles 2000). More than
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75 per cent of Human Resources
personnel in the USA are now making
regular use of Internet job boards in
addition to traditional recruitment
methods of newspaper advertising
and links with employment agencies
(HR Focus 2001).
3. The main ways that firms use the
√
Internet include developing their own
web sites, making use of recruitment
agency websites, or using ‘job
boards’: external websites that carry
sometimes thousands of vacancies
that job seekers can scan. External
recruitment agencies are increasingly
specialising in particular types of
niche vacancies, or acting as career
managers for job applicants and
helping to both place the applicant in
the right job and to support that
person during their career.
4. Job seekers too, use the Internet to
contact prospective employers by
placing their CVs or work résumés on
√
to websites that employers can scan.
A survey in the USA in 1999, for
example, suggested that 55 per cent
of graduates had posted their résumé
on to an online job service, and that
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three-quarters had used the Internet
to search for jobs in specific
geographic locations (Monday, Noe
and Premeaux 2002). Some job
seekers, with high demand skills,
offer their labour in electronic ‘talent
auctions’, with job negotiations, once
a successful match has been made,
facilitated by the Auction House
representatives on behalf of the
applicants.
5. The main advantages to employers of
using the Internet for recruitment
purposes are in the speed of
operation, breadth of coverage,
particularly if recruiting on a
√
worldwide basis, and cost saving that
can occur. Electronic advertising can
quickly connect with job-seekers in
many different places that might not
otherwise be contacted by more
conventional methods. Small to
medium sized enterprises too, find
that they can compete effectively
electronically with larger companies
and can begin to attract high-calibre
recruits to their web sites, which
might not otherwise be the case with
more traditional methods of
recruitment. With regards to cost
saving, it has been estimated that
expenditure on newspaper
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advertising and ‘head-hunter’ fees
dropped in the USA by 20 per cent as
Internet expenditure increased
(Boehle 2000). On-line recruiting, if it
is used effectively, is also estimated
to cut a week off the recruitment
process (Capelli 2001). Large
organisations, like L’Oréal and
KPMG, use the Internet to recruit staff
on both cost-saving grounds, and
because they feel it increases their
visibility and attracts high-calibre
recruits. With KPMG, for example,
the Human Resources staff was
handling 35,000 paper applications a
year, but decided to switch all their
recruitment online from May 2001 to
save time and printing costs (Carter
2001).
Plan the structure of the essay
Teaching Tip!
If time permits, it can be a useful exercise to encourage students to think
about how they might plan an essay structure around this essay title:
Evaluate the impact of the internet on practices for recruitment and
selection employed by firms.
Whilst there is unlikely to be muck
knowledge in the group in the content areas of the question, students may well have
ideas how the question might be approached or addressed generally. The following
comments offer one suggested way of approaching this task.
14
Evaluate the impact of the internet on practices for recruitment and selection employed
by firms
Write a clear introduction explaining to the reader what issues you intend to discuss
(see example in Unit 2)
Descriptive features:
Outline the range of methods open to employers for staff recruitment and selection
purposes, including the internet.
More detail on the nature and impact of the internet generally in recent years, and
describe how the internet is currently used for both recruitment and selection
purposes by both employers and job-seekers (job-seekers can use the internet to their
advantage too, to seek for vacancies)
.
Analytical features:
Advantages of internet for both recruitment and selection purposes.
Disadvantages of internet for both recruitment and selection purposes.
Comparison with non-electronic methods of recruitment and selection.
Conclusion: pull ideas together and reach a conclusion.
How to reduce the word count
Writing to a set word limit is a big challenge for many students, but it must be
done otherwise can be penalised. Typically, students can lose a percentage
of marks that matches the percentage overwritten. Trans:it students were
asked to reduce the word-count in each of the three examples given without
losing the meaning of the sentences. The adage ‘less is more’ often applies
to all forms of writing; essays are no exception.
15
Example 1
To build a long term sustainable
A long-term plan for change is
change model to last 10 years is the
needed that retains all the positive
only way forward. In doing so, there is
features of the organisation.
need to retain all that is positive about
the current performance of the
(16 words).
organisation but align this with an
outwards facing strategic enabling
approach.
(46 words).
Comment
The original example contains a number of redundant and superfluous
words. For example, “…build a long term sustainable change model to last
10 years”. ‘Long-term’ and ‘sustainable’ mean the same thing, and ‘long
term’ becomes superfluous if we are given a time period.
There are also unnecessary terms, such as, ‘In doing so…’
It also contains jargon that slows our understanding, for example, “… but
align this with an outwards facing strategic enabling approach”.
It is also written in the passive voice, e.g. “To build a long term sustainable
change model to last 10 years is the only way forward”. This could have
been written in an active voice, which inevitably cuts down on words, e.g.
‘Building a….etc.
However, re-writing the sentence, cutting out redundant and superfluous
words, is the best option. The re-worded sentence is clearer, sharper – and
cuts down on words by nearly two-thirds.
16
Example 2
The power of fossil fuel companies is
The power of fossil fuel companies is
such that that they can influence
such that that they can influence
developed countries not to sign up to
developed countries not to sign up to
the Kyoto Protocol. Developed
the Kyoto Protocol.
countries are susceptible to the
(23 words)
influence of fossil fuel companies so if
they not told to sign up, they are likely
to give way to that pressure.
(51 words)
Comment
This is an example of tautology: repeating the same word or sentence in an
unnecessary way. The second sentence says much as the same as the first and can be cut.
Example 3
The public’s knowledge of health is
poor and more government funding
The public’s knowledge of health is
for health education is needed
poor and more government funding
(Atkinson 2004).
for health education is needed
Increased sums of money should be
(Atkinson 2004).
spent on courses to make people
aware of personal health issues.
(18 words)
People don’t always know what they
can do to take care of their health, so
further investment is needed in
training on health matters.(59 words)
Comment:
Same as for example 2 – there are two unnecessary sentences here!
17
Unit 3: Writing Reports
Students were asked to ‘unscramble’ the five sections and match them with
the ‘classic’ report structure presented to them, as shown below.
A Classic Report Structure
There is a Classic report writing structure for writing the main body of all reports,
whether they are written for employment, academic, or other purposes:
Conclusion
Introduction
Background
Development
Discussion
Tells the
reader what
the report is
about and
how it is
organised
Sets the scene:
puts the report
into context,
e.g. historical,
economic,
technical etc.
Presents and
analyses the
problems or
issues raised
in the report
Presents,
analyses and
discusses
results or
possible
solutions to
the issues
raised.
Summarises what
has been learned,
or makes
suggestions,
predictions or
recommendations
Exercise result:
Introduction
Background
Development
Discussion
Conclusion
Extract: D
Extract: C
Extract: B
Extract: E
Extract: A
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Unit 4: Avoiding Plagiarism
There is no doubt that plagiarism continues to be a hot topic of discussion in
higher education. But it is certainly not a new phenomenon. And you can find
a range of opinion among lecturers: from those who seize on plagiarism as a
symptom of slipping academic standards, devaluation of higher education,
and an erosion of everything they believe higher education should be; to those
who feel that there is more than a little intolerance, hypocrisy and
inconsistency around the issue.
There are many academics, probably the majority, who oscillate between both
positions, genuinely confused – about whether what they read in front of them
in an assignment is plagiarism, carelessness, ignorance, misunderstanding,
confusion or poor referencing practice. They can be driven to fury when they
encounter blatant and wholesale copying, particularly if it comes during a
particularly heavy and exhausting period of marking. Yet, when faced with the
individual student, explaining his or her case for apparently plagiarising a text,
can understand why it has happened.
It is an issue that runs parallel to a debate with recurring questions about the
purpose of higher education in the 21st century. Is an insistence on
referencing about supporting a system and a process of learning that is a
legacy of a different time and society? Are universities enforcing upon
students an arcane practice of referencing that you will probably never use
again outside of higher education? Or is there something deeper in the
practice of referencing that connects with behaving ethically, properly,
decently, and respecting others – ageless societal values that universities
should try to maintain? Plagiarism, from this latter perspective, can be viewed
as an attack on these values.
A number of commentators (see Pennycook 1996; Thompson 2005; Neville
2009) have argued that plagiarism often arises from a lack of knowledge of
referencing, rather than from a deliberate attempt to deceive. The four
exercises in this Unit, therefore, present examples of when to reference – and
when it is not necessary; where to cite in assignments; and what constitutes
plagiarism.
19
Referencing Exercise 1: Is a Reference Needed?
Situation
1. When quoting directly from a published source.
Yes
No
√
Comment: The sources of all quotations used in assignments
must be referenced.
2. When using statistics or other data that is freely available
√
from a publicly accessible website.
Comment: The sources of all statistics used in assignments
must be referenced.
3. When summarising the cause of undisputed past events
√
and where there is agreement by commentators on cause
and effect.
Comment: This can be regarded as common knowledge,
which does need to be referenced.
4. When paraphrasing a definition found on Wikipedia, or
√
similar website.
Comment: This is ‘work’ in the public domain, so the
Wikipedia site should be cited and referenced, e.g.
(Wikipedia 2009). Many tutors would discourage students
from drawing their information from sites like this, as the
information shown can be unreliable.
20
5. When summarising or paraphrasing the ideas of an
√
important commentator or author, but taken from a
secondary source, e.g. general reference book.
Comment: Students should only cite and reference the
sources they have actually read or looked at – so the
secondary source should be cited and referenced, e.g.
(Clarke 2003, summarising Adams 2001): Clarke is the one
that is fully referenced.
6. When summarising what your tutor has written on a
√
course handout.
Comment: The tutor should be cited and referenced, as
his/her handout represents ‘work’ that has been presented
into the public domain.
7. When including in your assignment photographs or
√
graphics that are freely available on the Internet and
where no named photographer or originator is shown.
Comment: This is ‘work’ that is in the public domain. If no
names are shown, the name of the site should be cited and
referenced, e.g. (Bized 2009).
8. When emphasising an idea you have read that you feel
√
makes an important contribution to the points made in
your assignment.
Comment: This is an important reason for referencing.
21
9. When summarising undisputed facts about the world.
√
Comment: This is common knowledge (see 3, above)
10. When summarising an item of information you found on
√
YouTube
Comment: This is ‘work’ in the public domain and is ‘owned’
by someone. However, you may want to discuss with
students the reasons why they would want to use information
they found on such a site – is the information reliable?
Referencing Exercise 2: Where Should the Citations Go?
1. A major study of British school leavers concluded that parents had a major
influence on the kind of work entered by their children X. The children were
influenced over a long period of time by the values and ideas about work of their
parents. A later study reached the same conclusion, and showed a link
between the social and economic status of parents and the work attitudes and
aspirations of their teenage children X
.
Comment: The above extract refers to two different studies, so you need to
cite both of these. You have some flexibility about where the citations should
go. For example, the relevant citations could also have been placed after the
words ‘study’ in lines 1 and 4. The important point is to make the connection
between statement and source as obvious and clear as possible.
2. Climatologists generally agree that the five warmest years since the late
nineteenth century have been within the decade 1995-2005, with the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) ranking 2005 as the second warmest
year behind 1998 X.
22
Comment: The sources of all statistics and information originating from
named sources, such as the NOAA and WMO, should always be fully
referenced.
3.
It has been argued that federalism is a way of making sense of large
organisations and that the power and responsibility that drives federalism is a
feature of developed societies and can be extended into a way forward for
managing modern business because “…it has been designed to create a
balance of power within an institution. It matches paradox with paradox” X.
Comment: If you use the term, “It has been argued…”, you need to cite who
has presented this argument. As a quotation is included, you can show the
source of the argument and quotation – assuming they are from the same
source – immediately after the quotation. If the quotation is taken from a
printed source, show the page number, as well as the author’s name and year
of publication, as this helps others to easily locate the quotation in the source
cited, e.g. (Handy 1994, p.98).
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Plagiarism Exercise 1: Is it Plagiarism?
1. You see a useful article on an Internet site that will be
Yes
No
useful in your assignment. You copy 40 per cent of the
words from this and add 60 per cent of your own words.

You don’t include a source, as no author’s name is shown
on the site.
Comment: you should always acknowledge the sources of
items that have contributed to your own knowledge. If no
author’s name is shown, you should reference the name of
the website. The point that you used 60 per cent of your own
words in the process is irrelevant.
2. You summarise a point taken from a course handout
Yes
No
given to you by your tutor that contains secondary
information, i.e. the tutor has presented an overview of the
work of others. You do not reference the handout, as it

has not been published outside the university and is just
for the limited use of the students on the course.
Comment: the handout is the result of work by your tutor and
has been put into the public domain, albeit for a specialist
readership. You need, therefore, to acknowledge the source
in your assignment.
3. You are part of a study group of six. An individual essay
Yes
No
assignment has been set by a tutor. Each member of the
group researches and writes a section of the essay. The
work is collated and written up by one student and all the
group members individually submit this collective and

collated work.
24
Comment: study groups are an excellent way to share and
discuss ideas for assignments. But if an individual
assignment has been set then each member of the group
must write his or her own version of it.
4. You include the expression ‘an apple a day keeps the
Yes
No
doctor away’ in your essay without a reference to a
source.

Comment: this is an example of a common expression, or
aphorism, which does need to be referenced, as the source
or origin of the expression has been lost in the mist of time.
5. You discuss an essay assignment with a tutor; not the one
Yes
No
marking your assignment. The tutor has some interesting
ideas and perspectives on the topic, which you think
about, adapt and use in your essay. You do not reference

the tutor in your assignment.
Comment: only work, not ideas, can be plagiarised. ‘Work’ is
when ideas are presented, manifested, or published into the
public domain in some tangible way. We are influenced by
ideas all the time; this is how we learn. If, however, the tutor
had published his or her ideas, e.g. in an article, then you
would reference this.
6. Your command of written English is not as good as you
Yes
No
would like it to be. So you dictate to another student what
you want to say in an essay, and that student writes it out

for you, and you then submit it.
Comment: you must write this essay yourself. If you feel you
need help with English, you should seek advice from the
learning development services at the University.
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Plagiarism Exercise 2: More Plagiarism?
Many students struggle to paraphrase or summarise academic texts. This can
be because of time pressures, or they feel they cannot match the original, or
because they only half-understand the original, so revert to copying.
However, this can lead to accusations of plagiarism. This exercise presents a
paragraph from a book on referencing and Trans:it students asked to decide
which of these, if any, constitutes plagiarism within the definitions and
explanation given in the Unit.
Original extract:
Academic study involves not just presenting and describing ideas, but also being
aware of where they came from, who developed them, why, and when. The
‘when’ is particularly important. Ideas, models, theories and practices originate
from somewhere and someone. These are often shaped by the social norms and
practices prevailing at the time and place of their origin and the student in Higher
Education needs to be aware of these influences. Referencing, therefore, plays
an important role in helping to locate and place ideas and arguments in their
historical, social, cultural and geographical contexts.
Source: Neville, C. (2007). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding
Plagiarism. Maidenhead: McGraw Hill/Open University Press.
Example 1
Academic study involves presenting and describing ideas and being
aware of where they came from, who developed them, when, and why.
Knowing when to reference is particularly important as ideas, models,
theories and practices originate from somewhere and someone. These
are often moulded by the social norms and practices prevailing at the
time and place of their origin and students on degree courses need to
be aware of these influences. It can be said then that referencing plays
an important role in helping to locate and place ideas and arguments in
their historical, social, cultural and geographical contexts.
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Example 1: Is this plagiarism?
Yes. It is almost identical to the original and there is no attempt to identify the
source.
Example 2
Academic study involves not just presenting and describing ideas, but also
being aware of where they came from, who developed them, why, and
when. The ‘when’ is particularly important. Ideas, models, theories and
practices originate from somewhere and someone. These are often
shaped by the social norms and practices prevailing at the time and place
of their origin and the student in Higher Education needs to be aware of
these influences. Referencing, therefore, plays an important role in helping
to locate and place ideas and arguments into their historical, social,
cultural and geographical contexts (Neville 2007).
Example 2: Is this plagiarism?
Yes. Although the source is cited, the text has been directly copied into the
assignment. This implies that the words have been written by the student
concerned, which is clearly not the case. The student should have tried to
paraphrase the original extract in his or her own words.
Example 3
Academic study involves not just presenting Neville (2007) has argued that
referencing can help a scholar to trace a path back to the origin of ideas.
Ideas do not develop in a vacuum, but are formed by social, historical,
economic and other factors. Referencing is important then, not just for
identifying who said something, but when and why they said it.
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Example 3: Is this plagiarism?
No. It is a good effort to paraphrase the original extract and to acknowledge
the source.
Example 4
Academic study involves not just presenting and describing ideas, but also
being aware of where they came from, who developed them, why, and
when. It can be argued that the ‘when’ is particularly important because
ideas, models, theories and practices originate from somewhere and
someone. Neville (2007) has suggested that:
These are often shaped by the social norms and practices
prevailing at the time and place of their origin and the
student in HigherEducation needs to be aware of these
influences (p.8).
So referencing plays an important role in helping to locate and place ideas
and arguments in their historical, social, cultural and geographical
contexts.
Example 4: Is this plagiarism?
Yes. The quotation used implies that the rest was written by the student,
which is clearly not the case. Even though the source is cited, most of the text
is a direct copy from the original.
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UNIT 5: Sample Essay
In Unit 5, students were presented with an essay, accompanied with tutor
comment. However, an alternative teaching approach might be to present the
essay without the accompanying comment, and encourage students to
analyse it themselves. If you prefer this approach, the essay is shown on the
following pages, and can be printed out for students.
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Sample Essay
What is the point of referencing?
The reasons why accurate referencing is essential for academic work are not
immediately apparent, particularly for students new to higher education. This essay
will, therefore, examine why referencing is an essential part of academic writing and
in the process address the question: ‘what is the point of referencing?’
There are three main reasons for referencing. Firstly, referencing helps student writers
to construct, structure, support and communicate arguments. Secondly, references link
the writer’s work to the existing body of knowledge. Thirdly, only through referencing
can academic work gain credibility.
This essay will discuss these three aspects of referencing in detail, examine their
validity, identify how referencing affects a writer’s writing style, and show how
referencing helps students to present their own ideas and opinions in assignments.
Becker (1986) believes the construction of arguments is the most important function
of referencing systems. There are four dimensions to this. Firstly, drawing on existing
literature, academic writers can construct their own arguments - and adopting a
referencing system supports this process. Secondly, it helps to structure the existing
information and arguments by linking published authors to their respective works.
Third, referencing helps academic writers identify sources, gather evidence, as well as
show the relationships between existing knowledge. Finally, referencing also provide
a framework to enable writers to structure their arguments effectively by assessing,
comparing, contrasting or evaluating different sources.
However, merely describing existing research, rather than producing their own
contributions to the discussion, is inadequate for most academic writers. It is important
for every academic writer to avoid this narrow-minded argumentation trap; academic
writing is not just about compiling existing arguments, but adding new perspectives,
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finding new arguments, or new ways of combining existing knowledge.
For example, Barrow and Mosley (2005) combined the fields Human Resources and
Brand Management to develop the ‘Employer Brand’ concept.
When the argument has been constructed, it needs academic support – and only
references can provide this required support. We all know that academic works are not
about stating opinions - as that would be akin to journalistic comment - but arguments
are supported by evidence, and only arguments presented with sufficient and valid
support are credible. Hence arguments are only as strong as the underlying evidence:
arguments relying on questionable sources are – well, questionable.
Referencing also enables writers to communicate their arguments efficiently. The
referencing framework allows them to produce a holistic work with different
perspectives, whilst still emphasising their own positions; quotations, for example,
help the reader to differentiate the writer’s opinions from others. Again, if arguments
are badly referenced, readers might not be able to distinguish the writers’ own
opinions from their sources. Especially for academic beginners, referencing helps
them to adapt to the precise and accurate academic writing style required for degree
level study. Neville (2007, p. 10) emphasises this issue of writing style, and identifies
the quest to “find your own voice” as one of the main reasons for referencing. In
academic writing, this requires developing an individual style that is neither
convoluted nor convivial in tone, but which is clear, open but measured, and is about
identifying and using evidence selectively to build and support one’s own arguments.
Immanuel Kant said “Science is organized knowledge.” This short quote brilliantly
captures the point that the primary mission of science and other disciplines is not to
promote individual achievements, but to establish a connected, collective, and
recognised body of knowledge. This is the most fundamental reason for referencing
from a theoretical point of view. Hence some authors identify this as the principal
reason for referencing: “The primary reason for citation [...] is that it encourages and
supports the collective construction of academic knowledge” (Walker and Taylor,
2006, pp.29-30).
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The writer’s references are links to this network of knowledge. Without these links an
academic work would operate within an academic vacuum, unrelated to existing
academic knowledge. A writer needs to show how his or her work relates to current
research and debates in their chosen subject area.
Referencing not only connects a student writer’s work to existing research, but clearly
distinguishes the writer’s own ideas from established arguments –and failing to
indicate that ideas are taken from the existing body of knowledge would be
plagiarism. This is one of the five principles of referencing identified by Walker and
Taylor (2006). Neville also identifies the link to existing knowledge as one of the
main reasons for adopting a referencing style; he highlights “tracing the origin of
ideas”, “spreading knowledge” and “indicating appreciation” (2007, pp.9-10), which
leads to the next point.
Referencing a work indicates that the writer finds the referenced material important:
hence references create ‘academic clout’ in an assignment. In the global academic
community a more-cited article will find more recognition. However, this practice is
not without its critics. Thody, for example, calls this the “sycophantic” use of
referencing - and it can certainly be used to “flatter your mentors” (2006, p.186). And
Thompson calls this “ritualized obedience to the reigning authorities” (2003, p.27). So
the important issue here is not about selecting references for their expediency value,
but for their enduring quality. This brings us to the next point: credibility.
Martin Joseph Routh said in 1878: “You will find it a very good practice always to
verify your references, sir!” Correct referencing enables, therefore, the reader to check
sources and verify conclusions. The issue of credibility is identified by commentators
as a key issue in referencing. Nygaard, for example, identifies credibility as the main
reason for referencing: “The goal of referencing is to enhance [...] your credibility as
an author” (2008, p.177). Neville came to the same conclusion that “to be taken
seriously, [a writer] needs to make a transparent presentation of valid evidence” (2007,
p.10). Also the Academic Learning Support from Central Queensland University
(2007) sees the credibility of arguments as primary motive for correct referencing.
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References allow the reader to trace the source of the writer’s arguments, consult the
original independently and verify whether the writer’s usage of the sources is valid.
Some readers, for example, interested in a point in question, might want to verify the
writer’s interpretation of a referenced work.
The quality of references is, therefore, extremely important for the credibility of an
academic work. Arguments are only as good as the underlying references untrustworthy and unreliable sources can even invalidate an argument, while reliable
and dependable sources strengthen the writer’s argument.
Finally, the writer’s selection of sources also demonstrates whether the writer has
evaluated all important arguments and has a thorough understanding of the subject.
Only a credible work that takes all important arguments into account will find
acceptance in the academic world.
So what is the point of referencing? This essay has presented three main arguments
why academic writers have to adopt a referencing system: Firstly, it helps to structure,
support and communicate arguments. Secondly, it links the work to the existing body
of knowledge, although it is also important for writers not merely to present the ideas
of others, but to contribute where possible with innovative ideas of their own. Thirdly,
only referencing can give the argument credibility – and this is a particularly
significant element for success in the academic world.
References:
ACADEMIC LEARNING SUPPORT (2007), Division of Teaching and Learning
Services, Central Queensland University. Harvard (author-date) referencing guide.
2007 edn. Rockhampton, Queensland: Central Queensland University.
BARROW, S. and R. MOSLEY (2005). The employer brand. Chichester: John Wiley
and Sons, BECKER, H. S., (1986). Writing for social scientists. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press.
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NEVILLE, C., (2007). The complete guide to referencing and avoiding plagiarism.
Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill/Open University Press.
NYGAARD, L. P., (2008). Writing for scholars. Universitetforlaget.
THODY, A., (2006). Writing and presenting research. London: Sage Publications.
THOMPSON, A., 2003. Tiffany, friend of people of colour. International Journal of
Qualitative Studies in Education, 16(1), pp.7-30.
WALKER, J. R. and T. TAYLOR, (2006). The Columbia guide to online style. 2nd
ed. New York: Columbia University Press.
End of Section 5.
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References
Giddens, A. (1999). Runaway World: how globalization is reshaping our lives.
London: Profile Books.
Neville, C. (2007). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding
Plagiarim. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Pennycook, A. (1996). Borrowing others’ words: text, ownership, memory and
plagiarism. TESOL Quarterly, vol.30, No. 2, Summer 1996, pp. 210-23.
Royal Literary Fund (2006) Writing Matters. Available at
http://www.rlf.org.uk/fellowshipscheme/research.cfm [Accessed 5 Jan. 2010].
Thompson, C. (2005). Authority is everything: A study of the politics of textual
ownership and knowledge in the formation of student writer identities.
International Journal for Educational Integrity, Vol. 1, No. 1.
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