WORK FORCE DIVERSITY
Donald E. Klingner
Professor, School of Policy and Management
Florida International University
3000 N.E. 145th Street
North Miami, FL 33181-3600
305/940-5984 phone
305/940-5980 fax
Prepared for the International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration, Jay Shafritz, ed. New
York: Henry Holt & Co. All rights reserved: not to be quoted or copied without the express written
consent of the author and publisher.
draft #3: November 14, 1994
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Introduction
Work force diversity is the fundamental change in the composition of an organization's work
force that is now occurring in the United States and other developed countries as their cultures and
populations become increasingly diverse. This demographic diversity is accompanied by economic
pressures, as technological change and globalization of the economy increase public and private
employers' demands for a highly trained work force. And political pressures by women, minorities, older
workers, immigrants, and persons with disabilities have resulted in legal changes in the employment
rights of groups formerly excluded by law or custom from desirable professional and technical jobs (see
discrimination, age; discrimination, disability, discrimination, gender, discrimination, racial).
As a result of these changes, organizations need to design and implement work force
diversification programs. These involve subtle but sweeping changes in how they do business: changes
in organizational mission, culture, policy and practice.
Because work force diversity is caused by the impact of societal changes on organizations, the
organizational changes it causes are not isolated. Rather, they are related to other emergent trends in
public personnel management such as targeted recruitment, employee development, Total Quality
Management, and non-adversarial dispute resolution. But they also conflict with other emergent human
resource management trends caused by the same pressures: alternative methods of service delivery,
temporary employment, and job simplification.
The changes caused by work force diversification generate changed role expectations for all
groups in public agencies: appointed and elected officials, managers and supervisors, employees, and
public personnel managers. Because the objectives and underlying assumptions of diversification
programs conflict with those of other prevalent management trends, work force diversification programs
generate conflicts that make effective performance by each more group more difficult and demanding.
3
There are many examples of successful and unsuccessful work force diversification programs
in a range of public- and private-sector organizations. And successful programs generally share common
characteristics, as do unsuccessful ones.
This article will:
1.
define work force diversity and work force diversification;
2.
discuss its origin and history;
3.
distinguish work force diversification from equal employment opportunity and affirmative
action;
4.
examine its impact on organizational mission, culture, and five areas of personnel
management policy and practice: recruitment and retention, job design, education and
training, benefits and rewards, and performance measurement and improvement;
5.
show its connection to some contemporary public management trends such as employee
involvement and participation, employee development, Total Quality Management, and nonadversarial dispute resolution; and its conflicts with other trends such as temporary
employment, cost containment, and job simplification;
6.
explore how work force diversification changes role expectations and causes role conflict for
elected officials and public administrators (managers, supervisors, employees, human
resource managers, and affirmative action compliance specialists);
7.
present successful and unsuccessful examples of work force diversification programs; and
8.
based on these examples, describe the characteristics of successful programs, and
unsuccessful ones.
Definition: Work Force Diversity and Work Force Diversification
Work force diversity is a term that describes the range of employee characteristics that are
increasingly present in the contemporary work force of the United States and other developed countries.
4
Although disagreement does exist over the specific definition of diversity, for our purposes it includes
differences in employee and applicant characteristics (race, gender, ethnicity, national origin, language,
religion, age, education, intelligence, and disabilities) that constitute the range of variation among human
beings in the work force.
Work force diversification is a set of changes in organizational mission, culture, policies and
programs designed to enhance an organization's effectiveness by shifting its focus from tolerating
diversity to embracing diversity. In public agencies, a diversification program includes a range of
personnel functions: job design, recruitment and retention, pay and benefits, orientation and training,
and performance evaluation and improvement.
Origin and History of Work Force Diversity
Work force diversity has its origins in complex and interactive social, economic, political and
legal changes that are taking place in Europe, the United States, and other developed nations today.
The work force in modern industrialized nations is becoming socially more diverse. In the
United States, it is comprised increasingly of immigrants whose primary language is not English, and
whose primary norms are not those of "mainstream" American culture. And in the United States, for
example, only 15% of the increase in the work force between 1985 and 2000 will be white, non-Hispanic
males; 64% of the growth will be women; and the remaining 31% will comprise non-white males (nativeborn and immigrant) (Jamieson and O'Mara, 1991). It will be older. And new and current workers will
require technical and professional skills increasingly in short supply because of growing deficiencies in
our educational system (Johnston and Packer, 1987).
Work force diversity is not an isolated social change. It results from increasing economic
pressures for organizations to remain competitive in the new global economy. Organizations strive for
diversity because an organization that effectively manages diversity is more effective at producing goods
or services suitable for a diverse market. And a diverse organization is more effective at selling them,
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because consumers from diverse groups are attracted to the products or services of an organization that is
attuned to their culture, language and values.
Work force diversity is also based on increased political power and legal protection of diverse
groups, as these groups evolve through several stages of empowerment and protection. First, members of
diverse groups are almost automatically excluded from the work force, except for unskilled positions,
because they are outside the "mainstream" culture. This exclusion may be based in law as well as
custom. Second, as economic development and labor shortages increase, these groups are admitted into
the labor market, though they face continued economic and legal discrimination and are excluded from
consideration for desirable professional and technical positions. Third, as economic development and
labor shortages continue, and as their political power continues to increase, group members are accepted
for a range of positions, and their employment rights are protected by laws guaranteeing equal
employment access (equal employment opportunity). Fourth, as these groups become increasingly
powerful politically, efforts to reduce the considerable informal discrimination that continues in
recruitment, promotion, pay and benefits lead to establishment of work place policies such as salary
equality and employment proportionate with their representation in the labor market. Achievement of
these goals is encouraged by voluntary affirmative action programs. If voluntary achievement efforts are
unsuccessful, conformance may be mandated by affirmative action compliance agencies or court orders.
Fifth, continued social and political changes lead to the welcoming of diversity as a desirable political
and social condition, and continued economic pressures lead to the development of work force
diversification programs for organizations that desire to remain competitive.
These stages in the evolution of political power and legal protection for diverse groups in the
work force are shown below:
____________________________________________________________________________________
Political Power and Legal Protection for Diverse Groups
in the Work Force
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____________________________________________________________________________________
Stage
Employment Status
Legal Protections
1
excluded from the work force
none
2
admitted to the work force, but
none
excluded from desirable jobs
3
accepted into the work force
equal employment
4
recruited into the work force
affirmative action laws
5
welcomed into the work force
diversification programs
____________________________________________________________________________________
Difference Between Diversification, Equal Employment Opportunity, and Affirmative Action
Because the work force diversification programs found in the contemporary work place are
the current stage of an evolutionary process defined by increased social participation, political power and
legal protection for minorities, it is understandable that some people consider work force diversification
programs to be simply "old wine in new bottles" -- a contemporary variant on the equal employment
opportunity or affirmative action programs that have characterized personnel management in the United
States for the past thirty years. However, work force diversification differs from equal employment
opportunity or affirmative action programs in five important respects.
First, their purposes are different. Equal employment opportunity programs are based on
organizational efforts to avoid violating employees' or applicants' legal or Constitutional rights. And
affirmative programs are based on organizational efforts to achieve proportional representation of
selected groups. But work force diversification programs originate from managers' objective of
increasing organizational productivity and effectiveness.
Second, diversification programs include all employees, not just employees in specified
groups. Affirmative action laws protect only the employment rights of designated categories of persons
7
(in the United States, such groups as Blacks, Hispanics, native Americans, Asian Americans, workers
over 40, women, and Americans with disabilities). But work force diversification programs are based on
recognition not only of these protected groups, but also of the entire spectrum of characteristics
(knowledge, skills, and abilities) that managers and personnel directors need to recognize and factor into
personnel decisions in order to acquire and develop a productive work force.
Third, work force diversification programs affect a broader range of organizational activities.
Affirmative action programs emphasize recruitment, selection, and sometimes promotion because those
are the personnel functions most closely tied to proportional representation of protected groups (see
bureaucracy, representative). But work force diversification programs include all personnel functions
related to organizational effectiveness (including recruitment, promotion and retention, job design, pay
and benefits, education and training, and performance measurement and improvement).
Fourth, work force diversification programs have a different locus of control. Affirmative
action and equal employment opportunity programs are based on managerial responses to outside
compliance agencies' requirements. However, work force diversification programs originate as internal
organizational responses to managerial demands for enhanced productivity and effectiveness (although
this response is itself a reaction to demographic changes in overall population).
Fifth, because of all of the above factors, the entire effect of diversification programs is
different. Affirmative action programs tend to be viewed negatively by managers and employees,
because they are based on a negative premise ("what changes must we make in recruitment and selection
procedures to demonstrate a "good faith effort" to achieve a representative work force, and thereby avoid
sanctions by affirmative action compliance agencies or courts?"). In contrast, those work force
diversification programs that are most successful tend to be viewed as positive by managers and
employees, because they are based on a different question ("what changes can we make in our
organization's mission, culture, policies and programs in order to become more effective and more
competitive?").
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Impact on Organizational Mission, Culture, Policy and Practice
Work force diversification has an impact on organizations that is both sweeping and subtle. It
affects their mission, culture, policy and practice in ways that are obvious and unexpected, cumulative
and dramatic.
Impact on Organizational Mission
Work force diversification encourages changes in the organization's mission, or purpose. It
starts from a recognition among managers and personnel professionals that human resources are
increasingly vital to organizational survival and effectiveness; and that diversification programs are the
best way to foster the effective use of human resources (National Performance Review, 1993).
Impact on Organizational Culture
Work force diversification requires changes in organizational culture -- the values,
assumptions and communication patterns that characterize interaction among employees. These patterns
are invented, discovered or developed by members of the organization as responses to problems; they
become part of the culture as they are taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and
feel in relation to these problems (Schein, 1981). Viewed from this perspective, diversification is a
change in the way organizations do business, rather than just an adaptation of existing personnel policies
and programs to meet the specialized needs of minorities and women. It is an effort to describe and
understand the range of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that members of diverse cultures of
diverse groups can bring to the work place. It is an effort to consciously utilize these KSAs as a key to
making organizations successful and productive.
Impact on Human Resource Management Policy and Practice
9
A organization's decision to use work force diversity to increase effectiveness causes changes
in its human resource management policy and practice (see human resources management). Policy and
practice are the rules and procedures that implement organizational objectives. With respect to work
force diversity, these policies and practices are management's strategic plan for accomplishing its mission
through work force diversification. And they are a message to employees, managers, and political
leaders about the value the agency places on diversity in particular and on human resources in general.
In an agency with effective human resource management and effective work force diversification policies
and programs, this message is explicit and positive.
Work force diversification programs affect five specific areas of human resource management
policy and practice: recruitment and retention, job design, education and training, benefits and rewards,
and performance measurement and improvement (see recruitment, job design, training and development,
and performance appraisal).
Recruitment and retention policies and programs include those strategies already commonplace in
affirmative action programs: increasing the applicant pool of under-represented groups, increasing their
selection rate by developing valid alternatives for tests that have an disparate impact, and evaluating
performance evaluation and mentoring systems so as to encourage retention. Yet they differ because of
the ways work force diversification differs from affirmative action. Their purpose is productivity
enhancement through a diverse work force rather than legal compliance through recruitment or selection
quotas (see goals and quotas); they apply to a broader spectrum of applicant and employee
characteristics; they include a broader range of personnel activities; their locus of control is internal
rather than external, and their tone is positive rather than negative.
Job design is also affected, in that work force diversification efforts usually lead managers to consider
changes in where and how employees do work (Morgan and Tucker, 1991). To attract and retain women
with child- and elder-care responsibilities into the work force, options that offer flexibility of work
locations and schedules need to be considered. To attract and retain persons with disabilities, reasonable
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accommodation must be offered to make the work place physically accessible and to make jobs available
to persons who are otherwise qualified to perform the primary duties of the position (ADA, 1992).
Education and training programs are influenced in two ways by diversification programs. First, employer
concerns with the educational preparation of future workers have led to greater employer involvement in
areas that used to be considered the domain of public school systems. Work force training programs now
include basic skills unrelated to specific job tasks (such as literacy and English as a second language).
And there is increasing interest in strengthening federal and state sponsored job training programs, and in
sponsoring joint business-government policy initiatives such as tax incentives for costs associated with
business training programs. Second, employers now routinely develop and present managerial and
supervisory training courses on multi-cultural awareness and sensitivity.
Pay and benefit policies often become more flexible and innovative as diversification progresses.
Because women are the traditional family care givers, an employer's ability to attract a diverse work force
depends upon providing flexible benefits; benefits for part-time as well as full-time positions; parental
leave, child- and elder-care support programs; and phased retirement policies for older workers (see
family leave and flexitime).
Performance measurement and productivity improvement programs often change focus because of the
assumptions underlying work force diversification programs. Managers and supervisors now need to
consider the differing values and motivational perspectives of a diverse work force (Rubaii-Barrett and
Beck, 1993). Work force diversity has also brought about changing definitions of productivity based on
the need for variation in managerial styles, and resultant dramatic increases in organizational
effectiveness (Loden and Rosener, 1991). And as work teams themselves become more diverse, group
evaluation techniques that recognize the importance of individual contributions to work teams also need
to be encouraged.
The common threads linking these five areas of personnel policy and practice are their
common objective of increased organizational effectiveness, and their cumulative impact on
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organizational culture. Organizations that wish to attract and keep a diversified work force must change
the culture of the organization to create a climate in which persons from diverse groups feel accepted,
comfortable and productive. And this is why the tone of work force diversification programs differs
from their affirmative compliance program predecessors -- affirming diversity is different from tolerating
or accepting it.
Work Force Diversification and Other Management Trends
Public policy and administration is a river of theory and practice comprising many currents,
some conflicting with each other. Thus, it is to be expected that work force diversification programs are
consistent with some contemporary management trends, in that they share common assumptions and
objectives. And these programs are inconsistent with other trends that derive from opposing assumptions
and objectives.
Consistent Management Trends
Work force diversification programs are consistent with trends such as employee involvement
and participation, employee development, Total Quality Management, and non-adversarial dispute
resolution.
Employee involvement and participation are considered essential for maintaining high productivity (at
least among employees in key professional and technical positions). Even in the absence of significant
financial rewards, employees tend to work happily and effectively when they have the necessary skills,
see their work as meaningful, feel personally responsible for productivity, and have first-hand knowledge
of the actual results of their labor. These psychological states are most likely to result from work
designed to incorporate characteristics such as variety, significance, self-control, and feedback. They are
the objective of work place innovations such as delegation, flexible work locations and schedules, job
sharing, management by objectives (MBO), and Total Quality Management (TQM).
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Employee development is related to diversification, at least for key professional and technical employees,
because it (a) focuses planning and budget analysis on human resources; (b) facilitates cost-benefit
analysis of current training and development activities; and (c) facilitates communication and
commitment of organizational goals through employee participation and involvement (Rosow and Zager,
1988; and Bernhard and Ingols, 1988). This includes training for diversity (Solomon, 1993).
Total Quality Management (TQM) is an organizational change process that involves a combination of
top-down and bottom-up activities: assessment of problems, identification of solutions, and designation
of responsibilities for resolving them. It focuses on the connection between the quality of the work
environment and the quality of individual, team and organizational performance (Deming, 1988). It is
similar to team building and organizational development (French and Bell, 1990). And it is congruent
with work force diversification efforts because, like diversification, it focuses on a transformation of
organizational culture, policies and programs so as to enhance productivity.
Non-adversarial dispute resolution is a philosophy and practice that has become more common because
the challenge of channeling diversity into productivity is complicated by the breadth of expectations
members of diverse cultures bring to their work, both as individuals and as members of those cultures.
Without a method of settling disputes that models the organization's commitment to tolerance and
respect, differences lead only to divisiveness that consumes organizational resources without positive
results (Thomas, 1990). And there is general recognition that traditional adversarial dispute resolution
techniques are not particularly effective at resolving organizational conflicts: they build acrimony,
harden bargaining positions, and delay the resolution of the original conflict. Therefore, innovative
conflict resolution techniques such as "win-win" negotiation and group problem-solving have become
more popular. These "non-adversarial" techniques are often more effective, and the have the additional
advantage of modeling the organization's commitment to respect, tolerance, and dignity.
Opposing Management Trends
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On the other hand, work force diversification also conflicts with other current trends in
human resource management that are caused by some of the same economic pressures: temporary
employment, cost containment, and job simplification.
Temporary and part-time employment is an increasingly common phenomenon in the public and private
work place because it offers managers and personnel managers overwhelming advantages -- flexibility,
cost control, and circumvention of personnel ceilings or civil service rules. But it does have
disadvantages for applicants and some employees, in that it has also meant the creation of two segmented
labor markets (Doeringer and Piore, 1975): a primary market for skilled managerial, professional and
technical positions characterized by high pay, high status, and job security; and a secondary market for
less skilled laborer and service positions characterized by low pay, low status, and employment
insecurity. While employers will increasingly utilize minorities and women because of changing work
force demographics and a labor shortage, most new jobs will be created in the service sector and filled
through the secondary labor market (Hudson Institute, 1988), and most employment opportunities for
minorities and women will be in these new jobs rather than in more desirable professional and technical
positions filled through primary labor markets. Jobs filled (coincidentally mainly by white males)
through the primary labor market have relatively high qualifications, and this marked difference in
qualifications creates a "glass ceiling" that hinders development or promotion of employees (particularly
minorities and women) from jobs filled through the secondary market (see glass ceiling).
Cost containment due to economic pressure also runs counter to the pay and benefit innovations fostered
by work force diversification programs, in that they lead to reduced pay and benefits for all employees.
Professional and technical employees will continue to receive comparatively liberal health benefits to
help ensure retention and loyalty. But their pension benefits will continue to be eroded by longer vesting
periods, higher retirement ages, and a shift to defined-contribution programs. Their health care benefits
will continue to be reduced through increased premiums, longer waiting periods, and benefit limitations.
But it will be worse for temporary or part-time employees, who often receive no pension, health care,
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vacation, or sick leave benefits of any kind.
Job simplification is also a logical outcome of the increased use of temporary and part-time employees:
employers are forced to lower skill demands or training costs by "simplifying" rather than by "enriching"
jobs. That is, employers invest little, if anything, in training temporary employees. And wherever
possible, jobs filled through the secondary labor market are redesigned to minimize knowledge and skill
requirements so that even untrained and unmotivated employees can perform them satisfactorily. This
means designing jobs with simple and repetitive tasks, rather than giving employees control over a
complete job. It makes making quality control a supervisory responsibility (as in traditional, hierarchical
organizations) rather than empowering individuals or work teams to perform this function themselves.
And for these temporary employees, the relationship between employees and employer is unlikely to be
more than an economic transaction (pay for work). The assumptions underlying management of
"permanent" professional and technical employees (such as involvement, participation, employee
development, and careers) will not apply to temporary employees.
Implications for Elected Officials and Public Administrators
Work force diversity implies changing role expectations and role conflict for elected officials,
managers and supervisors, employees, personnel professionals, and affirmative action compliance
specialists charged with developing or implementing personnel management policies in public agencies.
Elected Officials
For elected officials, it means making difficult choices among policy options that often
conflict. These include pressures for "reinventing" government that take the form of continued pressure
on public agencies to measure outputs, increase efficiency, and enhance political accountability. In
public personnel administration, it means the relative ascendancy of political responsiveness and
efficiency as values; and the need for personnel administrators to work with other systems (besides
15
traditional civil service and collective bargaining) to enable agencies to reach objectives and control
costs (Klingner and Nalbandian, 1993). And providing public services outside of traditional civil service
systems controls the apparent size of the public "bureaucracy" while enhancing opportunities for
contracting out. Consequently, much government growth has been through secondary labor market
mechanisms, and through alternative vehicles for delivering public services: purchase of service
contracting, franchise agreements, subsidy arrangements, vouchers, volunteers, self-help, regulatory and
tax incentives (International City Management Association, 1989). While it is possible to influence the
personnel practices of contractors through minority business programs and "set-asides" (contracting
quotas), the use of alternative methods of service delivery reduces the ability of the public sector to
directly shape agency mission, culture, policies and procedures so as to achieve work force diversity.
Managers and Supervisors
Managers and supervisors are faced with the need to maintain productive organizations in the
face of two contradictory truths: it is usually easier to make decisions and resolve conflicts in a
homogeneous organization, at least in the short run; and organizations must be adaptable to
heterogeneous and shifting environments in order to survive in the long run. This means that managers
will continue to be evaluated along two criteria -- short-term productivity, and changes in organizational
culture which enable the organization to enhance long-term effectiveness.
Employees
Employees face the need to communicate, interact, form work teams, resolve conflicts, and
make decisions with other employees who may be unlike them in many characteristics. And they will do
so in a climate of increased work place tension due to the transformation of labor markets and increased
employment opportunity for skilled and unskilled foreign workers. These changes pit workers against
each other, and pit new applicants against current employees.
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Human Resource Managers
As always, human resource managers face the need to manage human resource efficiently and
effectively. With respect to work force diversity, this means the need to develop and apply two
apparently contradictory human resource strategies: policies for temporary employees designed to
control costs, and policies for permanent employees designed to ensure loyalty, participation and asset
development as human resources. Yet because asset development and cost control are both valid
objectives, this ambivalence will continue. And because effective human resource management depends
upon the communication of clear and consistent messages, public personnel managers find it increasingly
difficult when they must send different messages to different employees.
In general, therefore, work force diversity is consistent with demands on public officials and
administrators for more innovation. Human resource managers who recognize the dynamism and conflict
inherent in their roles are more likely to maintain an innovative and appropriate balance between
conflicting objectives. But cultivating innovation among public managers requires characteristics usually
not present in the culture of contemporary organizations -- reward systems that reinforce risk-taking, and
do not penalize failure.
Affirmative Action Compliance Specialists
The transition from affirmative action compliance to work force diversification presents
affirmative action compliance specialists with a difficult dilemma. Traditionally, affirmative action
specialists have relied upon their authority as interfaces between the organization and external
compliance agencies. Given the five critical differences between affirmative action compliance and work
force diversification, these specialists need redefine their own role and culture in the organization.
Examples of Work Force Diversity Programs in Practice
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There are many examples of successful and unsuccessful work force diversification programs
in a range of private- and public-sector organizations. Examples include:
-
The National Performance Review (1993) recommended a number of changes to move
managers from an orientation toward personnel procedures toward creation and maintenance
of a quality, diverse work force.
-
Corning Glass Works evaluates managers on their ability to "create a congenial environment"
for diverse employees.
-
Mobil Corporation created a special committee of executives to identify high-potential female
and minority executive job candidates, and to place them in line management positions
viewed as critical for advancement through the "glass ceiling" (Morgan and Tucker, 1991).
-
Dr. Robert McCabe, President of Miami-Dade Community College, recently won a
MacArthur Foundation Award for educational leadership, including a ten-year emphasis on
Work force diversity as a key to community involvement and mission achievement.
-
AT&T Bell Laboratories focuses its recruitment efforts on acquiring "the best and the
brightest, regardless of race, lifestyle or physical challenges. This has resulted in a
comprehensive diversification program.
-
Dallas, Texas developed a diversification program that involved modifications in the delivery
of city services, and the formation of a development corporation for an underdeveloped
minority area of the city.
-
San Diego, California developed a diversification program that involved a shift in
organizational culture, and consequent changes in policy and practice.
Characteristics of Effective and Ineffective Programs
In almost all cases, the effort to implement work force diversification programs starts with
both top-level support and efforts of a broad-based committee that assesses organizational culture, sets
18
goals, and suggests policy and program alternatives. If the focus of diversification is an organization, the
focus of diversification programs is internal climate, policies and programs. In large organizations, the
policy and program alternative stage may involve the work of several related task forces, each focusing
on a defined area of personnel practice such as recruitment and retention. If the focus is an entire city or
community, the focus may include economic and social development initiatives as well.
Effective Work Force Diversification Programs
Experts have proposed a relatively uniform set of criteria for assessing the effectiveness of
work force diversity policies and programs. These include:
a.
a broad definition of diversity that includes a range of characteristics, rather than only those
used to define "protected classes" under existing affirmative action;
b.
a systematic assessment of the existing culture to determine how members at all levels view
the present organization;
c.
top-level initiation of, commitment to, and visibility of work force diversity as an essential
organizational policy rather than as a legal compliance issue or staff function;
d.
establishment of specific objectives;
e.
integration into the managerial performance evaluation and reward structure;
f.
coordination with other activities such as employee development, job design, and TQM; and
g.
continual evaluation and improvement.
Ineffective Work Force Diversification Programs
On the other hand, insufficient top-level commitment or organizational visibility generally
renders diversification efforts unsuccessful because the program's long-term impact on organization
mission or culture is inadequate (Denison, 1990).
19
Donald E. Klingner
20
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