Second Language Acquisition, WS 2007/08
Saskia Dukek, Diana Sudbrink, Mette Wilkens
Explaining Second Language Learning I
Behaviourism
 Behaviourist theory explains learning in terms of stimulus, response and reinforcement
 Skinner suggested that this process happens also in language learning
 Strong influence in America between 1940s and 1970s on the development of audio-lingual
teaching materials and teacher training.
 Classroom activities focused on mimicry and memorization and students learned dialogues
and sentence patterns by heart.
The Innatist Perspective: Universal Grammar
 Chomsky himself did not make specific claims about his theory applying also to second
language acquisition (2nd LA)
 It is not clear if UG can explain 2nd LA. There are different opinions of several researchers
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logical problem:
learner’s know more about language than as it were possible only by absorbing input
so UG must be available also in 2nd LA
However, it is not clear if UG has the same nature and availability in second and in first
language acquisition
Krashen’s monitor model:
 Model of 2nd language acquisition influenced by Chomsky’s theory of 1st language acquisition
 based on five hypotheses
1. acquisition-learning hypothesis
 Acquisition takes place without conscious attention to the form of a language
(simply picking up the language)
 Learning takes place through conscious attention to forms and rules of a
language
2. monitor hypothesis
 The acquired system is responsible for fluency and for spontaneous language
use
 The learned system means that the language that we have consciously learned
acts as an editor in situations where the learner has enough time to edit,
focuses on form, and knows the rule of grammar. This conscious editor is
called the “Monitor”.
3. natural order hypothesis
 Some structures in a given language are usually acquired earlier than others
(equally to 1st language acquisition).
 Language features that are easily to learn (e.g. 3rd person singular –s) are not
necessarily the first to be acquired
4. input hypothesis
 A language acquirer who is at a certain level (“i”) must receive
comprehensible input that is one level further (“i+1).
 This means one acquires language only when they understand language that
contains structure that is one small step beyond.
5. affective filter hypothesis
 The hypothesis states that each learner has a metaphorical barrier which
sometimes prevents them from acquiring language
 The filter is influenced by attitude, feelings, motives, needs, motivation, etc.
The Cognitivist/ Developmental Perspective
 language acquisition is compared to the storage of a computer
Information Processing
 N. Segalowitz: at first learners have to concentrate on certain aspects of language
 they have to use cognitive resources and energy
 BUT: there is a limited amount of information one can pay attention to at one time
 learners at lower levels use all their energy to understand the main words
 later processing becomes quicker and more and more automatic
 this sets free new energy and the learner can concentrate on other aspects and
eventually the general meaning
 therefore learners need more time to understand than proficient speakers
 R. DeKeyser: language acquisition is "skill learning" (like riding a bike)
 first declarative knowledge (rules are learned), which becomes procedural knowledge
(automatic use)
 restructuring: the learner understands a certain aspect and incorporates it in his cognitive
structures, may result in backsliding
Transfer Appropriate Processing:
 information is best retrieved, if it is retrieved in a similar situation as it was learned in
Connectionism
 greater importance to the environment than innate perspective
 knowledge is built up through exposure of linguistic features (learners must hear them again
and again in different contexts)
 they build up a network of connections between different elements (one element may
activate another)
 they get it right, because they heard it so many times (e.g. 3rd pers. sg. -s) – not
because they are aware of the grammatical rule behind it
 chunks are learned
The Competition Model
 Proposed as an explanation for 1st and 2nd language acquisition
 2nd language acquisition requires that learners learn the relative importance of the different
cues appropriate in the language they are learning
 Most languages make use of multiple cues (e.g. relationship between words in a sentence may
be signalled by word order, grammatical markers and animacy of the nouns in the sentence.
 Differences between young language learners:
o 2-3 years old use cues of animacy of the nouns and their knowledge of the way things
work in the world to interpret odd sentences
o By the age of four they get an idea about s-v-o interpretation of sentences. Word order
patterns are stronger at this point than animacy cues.
o Later they learn to pay attention to grammatical patters as active and passive voice
Questions:
- Which classroom activities were used in language classroom on the background of behaviourism?
- In how far does the use of a monitor influence a learner’s production of speech? Take into
consideration the theories about the information processing.
- Why can language learners not speak fluently, according to the theories of information processing?
- What can happen if learners restructure their knowledge?
- What is the difference between two or three year old English speaking children and children by the
age of four?
Literature:
Patsy M. Lightbown and Nina Spada. How Languages are Learned. 3rd edition. Oxford: OUP 2006.