Media Stereotyping
Running Head: MEDIA STEREOTYPING
Media Stereotyping: The Effect of Cultural Videos in College Classroom
Kashmira Thakkar
Illinois State University
COM 472 – Seminar in Intercultural/Interethnic Communication
Dr. John R. Baldwin
May 10, 2005
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Media Stereotyping
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Abstract
Utilizing a random sample of 121 participants, this particular research analyzes the
undergraduate students’ perception of the East Indian Culture that is formed and influenced by
media. A survey of stereotypical perceptions is used to inquire about views that individuals hold
of the East Indian Culture. Furthermore, using a one-way ANOVA test a cross analysis is done
between three groups to see if media has an impact on student perceptions of the East Indian
Culture. The results reveal that media does have a significant influence in shaping one’s
stereotypes. These findings validate the Cultivation theory and have implications for educators
who choose films as a tool for teaching about a culture. What one chooses to watch and show is
of importance because it leaves behind impressions that eventually lead to stereotypical views
about a particular culture.
Media Stereotyping
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Media Stereotyping: The Effect of Cultural Videos in College Classroom
Introduction
It is said that on an average a person watches up to four hours of TV per day. Aside from
the four hours of TV that one watches at home or at any other place, we are constantly
surrounded by other forms of media such as newspapers, magazines, internet, etc. All forms of
media bring across information and messages that we analyze and interpret, whether it is
conscious or unconscious. We rarely stop to think about the impact that media have on us.
Implicitly or explicitly media influence us and begin to shape our ideas, our perceptions, and our
stereotypes. While we all know that stereotypes are not one hundred percent true, they do have a
kernel of truth in them, which is the reason why they have been formed in the first place.
In a fast moving, global world media has become the prime source for information
exchange for many of us. Therefore, it is quiet common for individuals to learn about different
aspects of life through TV, the internet, and other forms of media. Among these things are
perceptions about other cultures. Forms of media such as TV shows and movies depict what
other cultures are like, how they live, what they eat, how they communicate, and so on. The
depiction of these aspects of culture in movies shapes our view of that particular culture.
Keeping this in mind, this particular study analyzes undergraduate students’ perception of the
East Indian Culture through a stereotype survey.
The objective of the study is to not only find out what stereotypes students hold of the
East Indian Culture, but to also inquire whether media affects these stereotypes. There are three
groups involved in this study. The first group watched a Hollywood movie, second group
watched a Bollywood (Indian film industry) movie, and the third group (control group) watched
no movie. All three groups filled out a brief stereotype survey afterwards. Results of the study
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were used to determine if perceptions of students differ depending on which movie clip they saw.
As mentioned before, the objective is to see what kind of impact media has on one’s perception
of the culture. Apart from this, our objective is to also analyze what stereotypes students hold in
general about the East Indian Culture.
Literature Review
Stereotypes
According to the Merriam-Webster’s dictionary (2002), a stereotype may be defined as
an oversimplified or biased mental picture held to characterize the typical individual of a group.
The Color of Words: An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States defines
stereotype as “a generalization of what people are like; an exaggerated image of their
characteristics without regard to individual attributes” (Herbst, 2001, p. 212). Though the term is
commonly applied to human beings, it is quite possible to stereotype objects as well (Nachbar &
Lause, 1992). However, for the purpose of this research study we will treat stereotypes within
the context of popular beliefs and images that people hold about other groups of people.
Social Beliefs and Stereotypes
According to Lippmann (1922) stereotypes are essentially “pictures in our heads.” (p. 9).
These mental pictures are formed not only by one’s own personal experiences, but also through
continuous social interaction. Later, Boulding (1956) further discussed the concept of “image”
which we all keep in our thoughts about the world. According to Boulding (1956), very few of
these images are based on personal experiences. Both Lippmann (1922) and Boulding (1956)
realized that what we know about the world – the images and pictures in our heads are
byproducts of our interaction with the people and the society as a whole. Consequently, these
thoughts or “facts” which we hold about the world result from agreeing with people during the
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course of social interactions that a particular “fact” is true. Therefore, the thoughts or “facts” are
likely to represent the biases of these social interactions.
Recent research in the field of social psychology points to the fact that stereotypical
beliefs are implicit in the sense that they are based on ordinary biases rooted in the memory and
happen at an unconscious level (Banaji & Bhaskar, 2000). According to Allport (1979), man has
an inclination to prejudice. This inclination lies in his natural and normal tendency to form
generalizations, concepts, and categories. Often these concepts represent an oversimplification
of his world of experiences. Allport (1979) indicates that these concepts and categories
sometimes even lack the “kernel of truth” and can be formed based on hearsay evidence,
emotional projections and fantasies. Allport (1979) defined stereotype as an exaggerated belief
associated with a category. Its function is to justify our conduct in relation to the category. He
points out that some stereotypes are totally unsupported by facts; while other stereotypes develop
from a sharpening and overgeneralization of facts which in few cases have a “kernel of truth”
associated with them.
Social Beliefs and Mass Media
Different forms of mass communication include newspapers, magazines, television,
popular cinema, music, literature, internet, textbooks, etc. According to Newspaper Association
of America (NAA), in the year 2004, 1456 newspapers have been published in the morning and
evening editions with a total circulation of 55,185,351 newspapers per day with a readership of
57% of men and 52% of the entire population (NAA, 2004). According to A.C. Nielsen Co.
report (1998), the average American watches 3 hours and 46 minutes of TV each day. By age
65, the average American will have spent roughly 9 years watching TV. Almost 98% of
American homes have at least one television. The report also indicates that 6 million videos and
Media Stereotyping
3 million library items are checked out everyday. According to the National Association of
Theater Owners (2004), there are a total of 36,652 movie screens, with a total of 1.53 billion
admissions in the year 2004 alone. Few sociologists would refute the fact that this huge
exposure to different forms of media could play a big role in creating the so called “images”
(Boulding, 1956) and “pictures in our heads” (Lippmann, 1922) which result in the formation of
stereotypes.
Media Stereotyping
In popular culture, people are often stereotyped around characteristics of age, gender,
race, ethnicity, religion, vocation, and nationality (Nachbar & Lause, 1992). The following
section reviews relevant research literature available on general media stereotyping around the
characteristics of age and gender.
General Media Stereotyping
According to Rutherford (1994), women in television advertisements are depicted as
feminine, showing their beauty, grace and sexual attractiveness, while men on the other hand
were associated with outdoors, sports, cars, driving, and relaxing. Rutherford (1994) further
emphasized the fact that women are often associated with the images of homemaker whereas
roles within the home and work environments that demand expertise and authority are often
associated with men. A content analysis of the New York Times coverage of 1995 Women’s
NCAA Basketball tournament indicated that there were three times as many stories, photos and
graphics on the men’s tournament when compared to the women’s tournament (Silverstein,
1996). The analysis revealed that the New York Times coverage perpetuated the “women are
not aggressive” stereotype (Silverstein, 1996) and trivialized the women’s tournament. A study
which investigated a random sample of 91 MTV music videos which were broadcasted in 1993,
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depicted men as more adventuresome, violent and aggressive when compared to women. More
than nine out ten stereotypically male occupational roles were portrayed by males on MTV and
all stereotypically female occupational roles were portrayed by females (Seidman, 1999).
Comic strips, which are one of the most widely read forms of humor in American popular
culture, appearing in the Washington Post between 1970s and 1990s were analyzed comparing
humor and ageing. Findings indicated that older adults are stereotypically represented as
unattractive, out-of-touch and not so intelligent people (Hanlon, Farnsworth, & Murray, 1997).
For the purpose of this research study, we will be concentrating on the racial and ethnic
stereotyping in media. The following sections review the relevant research literature available
on media stereotyping of various ethnic minorities.
Media Stereotyping of Ethnic Minorities
Cultivation theory sometimes also referred to as cultivation hypothesis or cultivation
analysis was an approach developed by George Gerbner (Chandler, 2000), to study whether and
how television watching may influence viewers’ ideas of what the world is like. According to
cultivation theorists television has long-term effects which are small, gradual, indirect but
cumulative and significant. In essence cultivation theory states that continuous exposure to mass
media namely television, creates and cultivates attitudes that are more consistent with the media
version of reality than with the actual reality (Chandler, 2000). Television in this case acts as a
socializing agent that educates viewers on a separate version of reality.
Cultivation theorists argue that heavy viewers tend to have more homogenized or
convergent opininons than light viewers. This cultivation effect is one of “level” or
“homogenizing” opinion and is called “main streaming effect” (Chandler, 2000). According to
Gerbner, this “main streaming effect” results in heavy viewers of violence on television coming
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to believe that incidents of violence in everyday world are higher than light viewers with similar
backgrounds. As a consequence, heavy viewers tend to believe that the “world is a nastier place”
than do light viewers. This is a direct effect of misjudging the amount of violence in the society
and is called the “mean world syndrome.” Gerbner, further points out that congruence between
the viewers’ everyday experiences and the depictions on television will result in a double-dose
effect, boosting the cultivation process. This is referred to as “resonance” (Chandler, 2000).
Cultivation theory has often been criticized by researchers for being over-simplified, not
considering several other forms of media which can contribute to cultivation and not dealing
with several factors such as demographics, age, gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic
background that can affect a person’s experience while watching television (Chandler, 2000). In
spite of its limitations, cultivation theory continues to hold an important place in today’s society.
The following section reviews the literature based on media stereotyping of different minorities
which inherently “cultivate” cultural perceptions of ethnic minorities.
African Americans
Research literature reviewed indicates that popular media including television,
newspapers, websites and films often portray African Americans in stereotypical representations.
A content analysis of 1,699 television commercials (Coltrane & Messineo, 2000) aired on
popular television programs with high ratings between 1992 and 1994 indicated that African
American men are often stereotypically portrayed as hyper masculine or menacing and
aggressive in nature. The findings also indicated that African American men are less likely to be
at home and are less likely to be passive/emotional when compared to their white counterparts,
which are common stereotypical beliefs held against African Americans (Coltrane & Messineo,
2000).
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A content analysis of 813 television commercials aired on children’s television
programming conducted by Bang and Reece (2003) also indicated that African Americans were
less likely to be shown in home environments and more likely to be shown in food commercials
when compared to Caucasians. Cultivation theory suggests that these kinds of portrayals can
unduly result in stereotypical beliefs about African American children.
Findings from a content analysis of fifty popular films in 1996 (Eschholz, Bufkin, &
Long, 2002) indicate that African Americans are still underrepresented in leading roles in
Hollywood and are in general portrayed stereotypically. African Americans are more likely to
be portrayed in less serious and comic roles whereas their white counterparts are more likely to
be portrayed in drama and action/adventure genres. Furthermore, the occupational prestige of
African American actors was less than the occupational prestige of their white counterparts.
Ever since the movie The Birth of a Nation was released, African American men have often been
portrayed in Hollywood as violent in nature. This is indicated by the ingrained association of
African American males with violence in movies such as Boyz N the Hood, Menace II Society,
Fresh, Jason’s Lyric, Juice, and many others (Pierson, 1997).
Another source (Cripps, 1978) in R. Miller’s edited book, also discusses the movie, The
Birth of a Nation in which Griffith derives black images from southern mythology and common
racial stereotypes that have long been circulating in the popular cinema. The images in this
movie depict negative stereotypes of African Americans during the Civil War. According to
Cripps (1978), African Americans understood the implications of Griffith’s images and as result
the NAACP launched a campaign to boycott such films. To reverse the negative stereotypes
created by the movie, the NAACP and Booker T. Washington sought to develop a black motion
Media Stereotyping 10
picture company in which they scaled their efforts down to a movie titled, The Birth of a Race
(Cripps, 1978).
Furthermore, a source by Pines (1975) states that Blacks are exploited in movies, which
is known as “blaxploitation.” According to Pines (1975), the trend of “blaxploitation” in films
has been popular through the gangster idiom that started in the movie Shaft and carried on
through others movies such as Cool Breeze, Slaughter, and Black Gunn. All of these movies are
obsessively geared towards violence (Pines, 1975).
Native Americans
A study conducted by Merskin (2001) on four popular national products: Land O’ Lakes
Butter, Sue Bee Honey, Big Chief [Monitor] Sugar, and Crazy Horse Malt Liquor indicates the
use of Native American stereotypes in advertising. According to Vrasidas (1996), film industry
in US has played a significant role in misrepresentation and creation of stereotyping the image of
Native Americans. Vrasidas (1996) discussed “The Western” as a film genre and as a type of
American mythology which perpetuated the myths and stereotypes of Native Americans.
Another source by Walker (1998) in Rollins and O’Connor’s edited book states that a
movie titled, The Last of the Mohicans is a prime example of how Native Americans are
negatively portrayed in popular cinema. The central theme that is depicted in this particular
movie is that of barbarism. According to Walker (1998), Hollywood’s depiction of Native
Americans unfortunately contributed to the history of repeatedly telling the “wrong tale of The
Last of the Mohicans” (p. 177).
According to Hilger (1986), there is no doubt that the “wild and woolly westerns” have
put in place negative images of Native Americans in the minds of the audience. Although such
negative stereotypes exist, some films such as Little Big Man, attempt to be sympathetic to the
Media Stereotyping 11
Native American characters. However, despite such sympathy that is portrayed, yet it still uses
Native American characters as only political symbols to criticize contemporary values (Hilger,
1986).
Latinos
A content analysis of newspaper coverage on Hispanics in nine emerging communities
(Paulin, 2004) indicates that Hispanics are still stereotypically portrayed as victims who are not
in control of their circumstances. A story-line content analysis of six textbooks that are
extensively used in grades 7-12 across US indicates that subtle and not-so-subtle adjectives and
parenthetical comments were used to reinforce negative stereotypes about Latin Americans as
lazy, passive, irresponsible, and somewhat paradoxically, lustful, animalistic and violent (Cruz,
1994).
According to Pettit (1980), a large number of movies depicting Hispanics, portrays three
major stereotypes: the dark lady, the bandito, and the clown. Furthermore, Pettit (1980) points
out that most Mexican women do not hold key moral positions in popular cinema. In addition, a
source by Williams (1985) in Keller’s edited book sheds light on the fact that Hispanic women’s
bodies are often reduced to the status of sex objects. This kind of portrayal is for the delight of
male subjects who are no less stereotyped than the “lazy Mexicans” who serve as foils in
countless “Westerns to flatter the intelligence and energy of the Anglo cowboy” (Williams,
1985, p. 59). Furthermore, according to Williams (1985), films such as Let Katie Do It or
Martyrs of the Alamo depict Hispanics as “lazy greasers,” banditos, and sex and dope addicts.
Arabs
In his book, Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies Arabs, Shaheen (2001), discussed
more than 900 films, which portrayed a distorted image of Arabs. Fifteen to twenty movies that
Media Stereotyping 12
have been appearing on TV screen since the mid 1980’s projects Arabs as dehumanized. These
movies are mostly recycled versions of: The Sheik (1921), The Mummy (1932), Cairo (1942),
The Steel Lady (1953), Exodus (1960), The Black Stallion (1979), Protocol (1984), The Delta
Force (1986), Ernest in the Army (1997), and Rules of Engagement (2000). Though, there have
been few movies where Arabs have been projected as heroes, majority of the portrayals are
negative stereotypes commonly held against Arabs. According to Shaheen (2001):
“The moviemakers’ distorted lenses have shown Arabs as heartless, brutal,
uncivilized, religious fanatics through common depictions of Arabs kidnapping or raping
a fair maiden; expressing hatred against the Jews and Christians; and demonstrating a
love for wealth and power” (p. 171).
Shaheen (2001) also draws an interesting parallel between how negative stereotypes of
Arabs are portrayed in movies with the propaganda of the images of Jews in Nazi-inspired
movies such as Robert and Bertram (1939), Die Rothschilds Aktien von Waterloo (1940), Der
Ewige Jude (1940), and Jud Süss (1940).
According to Woll and Miller (1987), the Arab stereotype derives from cultural traditions
dating back to the Middle Ages. Furthermore, movies regarding Arab stereotypes have depicted
views of sinister figure of crime and corruption. International events, especially the continuing
Arab-Israeli conflict and Middle Eastern political instability have repeatedly resulted in negative
reporting about the Arab world (Woll & Miller, 1987).
Asians
Similar to other ethnic groups mentioned above, Asians also have been stereotyped and
misrepresented in the media. According to Choy (1978) although superficially one might say
that the media images of the typical Asian has undergone changes, however in actuality, “all we
Media Stereotyping 13
see is a repackaging of the various stereotypes developed in the 1800s” (p. 145). For example,
according to Sardar (2000), conventionally the Chinese have been portrayed as: untrustworthy,
stupid, greedy, superstitious, lustful towards white women, irrationally attached to rather
conservative notions of honor and family loyalty, and prone to narcotic addictions. However,
some movies such as Broken Blossoms were seen as sympathetic portrayal of the Chinese. But
the intended sympathy only reconfirmed the prejudice it seeks to expose (Sardar, 2000).
Furthermore, movies such as Keys of the Kingdom (1944) and Inn of the Sixth Happiness (1958)
showed China as cruel, despotic, wrapped in tradition, chaotic, a corrupt “ruin on the edge of the
world,” and perennially resistant to change and to the west (Sardar, 2000).
Additionally, a source by Kobayashi (1999) states that before the 1960s Asians were
generally stereotyped in “devious, inscrutable, unassimilable, and in other overtly negative
ways” (p. 3). Furthermore, before 1960s Asian women were generally portrayed as exotic and
erotic (Kobayashi, 1999). All these images in films show misrepresentation of Asians.
East Indians
According to Rosser (1995), Hinduism in American textbooks is referred to as one of the
world’s five greatest religions. However, Hindu beliefs and traditions are represented
superstitiously. A survey conducted in University of Texas at Austin in the fall semester of 1995
indicated that, wars, disease, population, Gandhi, Mother Theresa, female infanticide, flooding,
and starvation were the most emphasized topics in the study about India in American history
textbooks. The survey also indicated that India is economically backward with emphasis on the
superstitious and polytheistic nature of Hinduism as one of the primary reasons. A large number
of students also indicated the portrayal of Indians as those eating monkey brains by many
teachers, as depicted in the Spielberg film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984).
Media Stereotyping 14
According to Woll and Miller (1987), India became a backdrop in Hollywood films in the
1930’s. Often, these films presented the British view of the events and personalities of the
Indian colony. This was clearly portrayed in the movie Gunga Din (1939), which depicted the
supremacy of three British officers over thousands of evil Indians obsessed by warlike religion.
More recent films by the British like Gandhi (1982), A Passage to India (1984), Granada
Television’s The Jewel in the Crown, heed back to the American versions of life presented in the
1930’s. Later, the stereotyped and hackneyed representations of 1920’s and 1930’s were used by
screen writers as evident in Spielberg’s film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984).
According to Woll and Miller (1987), this film borrowed its conception from the depiction of
Indian life from the tribesmen of Gunga Din (1939).
In addition, Bernardi (1996) discusses the birth of whiteness in D.W. Griffith’s narrative
system followed in such films as The Birth of a Nation (1915) and Broken Blossoms (1919),
which cast non-whites as metonymic and metaphoric threat to superiority of whiteness. These
threats to whites from non-whites is also evident in films such as Leather Stockings (1909), A
Mohawk’s Way (1910), and The Thread of Destiny (1910), in which Indians attack and brutalize
white families (Bernardi, 1996). According to Bernardi (1996), Griffith’s stories are ultimately
about white masculinity and their divine and natural right to judge and punish. The emphasis in
Griffith’s stories on non-whites being inferior and brutal and the dominance on non-whites are
required to maintain the “privilege” of white men.
Furthermore, Hearn and Demille (1996) in Hagashi’s edited book, note the demonstration
of white supremacy and white privilege which marked its birth in Griffith’s narrative system
(Bernardi, 1996) in movies such as Indiana Jones and Temple of Doom (1984) that portrays
people around the globe as exotic, mysterious, pagan, culturally backward, and racially inferior.
Media Stereotyping 15
Similarly, Shome (1996), in his essay examines City of Joy (1992), a movie about India
and notes the representation of white supremacy and white privilege. According to Shome
(1996), the essential theme in this movie and many others such as Lawrence of Arabia (1962),
Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom (1984), or even more recent films such as Rambo III
(1988), Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989), The Medicine Man (1992), and On Deadly
Ground (1994) is one of “White man’s burden.” This genre of films use the colonialistic
narrative of the white man playing the savior of so called “third world” countries and the
imperialist idea that white person has to arrive and save the humanity, incapable of governing
themseleves from miserable conditions.
According to Srivastava (2005), an irritating fact is of the western world’s portrayal of
India in few defined parameters such as poverty, maharajas, snake charmers and elephants.
Srivastava (2005) notes that though the west is talking of India as the emerging economic
powerhouse, the creative outputs still seem to be caught in a time warp. According to Srivastava
(2005), a recent Hollywood film Alexander (2003) came in particular criticism in India for its
stereotypical treatment of Indians heeding back to Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom
(1984).
Few economists would refute the fact that India is on the path of becoming an economic
powerhouse for the last decade and a half. A recent report from Goldman Sachs (Nahan, 2004)
indicates this fact and notes that even if the Indian economy continues to grow for the next 20
years at just the same pace as it has over the past decade, it will become the world’s third largest
economy on the planet after US and China. Rodrigo de Rato, Managing Director of International
Monetary Fund, in his remarks about the growing Indian economy (Rato, 2005) emphasizes the
fact of dramatic declining poverty from 41% in 1992-93 to less than 29% percent in 2000.
Media Stereotyping 16
According to Rato (2005), international investors are eagerly focusing to take part in a new
India. Rato (2005) also notes about the booming IT (Information Technology) sector along with
many other sectors including tourism, steel production, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals.
Research literature reviewed indicates that India is changing. However, the
representation and portrayal of Indians in Hollywood films continue to be based on stereotypical
themes such as poverty, squalor, backwardness, paganism and mysteriousness. The purpose of
this study is to identify some stereotypical beliefs held by Americans’ about East Indian Culture
and also study the effect of popular cinema on Americans’ perceptions of East Indian Culture.
Therefore, the researchers pose the following questions:
RQ1: What are Americans’ perceptions/stereotypes of the East Indian Culture?
RQ2: Does media impact Americans’ perceptions/stereotypes of the East Indian Culture?
Method
Participants
This particular research study included a random sample of 121 participants. These
participants were recruited by one of the principal investigators at a large Midwestern university.
The participants were all undergraduate students in a COM 110 class at the university. For the
purpose of this study no specific demographic information was necessary.
Procedures
The 121 participants were broken up into three groups. The first group in the study,
which was 37 participants, was shown a movie clip about India titled, City of Joy, which is made
and produced by Hollywood. The movie clip was approximately 7-8 minutes long, in which the
participants mostly saw the poor, overpopulated, polluted, old slums of Calcutta (a city in India).
In addition to this, participants also saw a poor Indian man struggling to find a job in this big
Media Stereotyping 17
city. Following the movie, students were asked to fill out the stereotype survey. The second
group in the study, which was 39 participants, was shown a movie clip about India titled, Hum
Tum, which is made and produced by Bollywood (the Indian film industry). This movie clip was
also approximately 7-8 minutes long, in which the participants saw a young, modernized girl and
a guy (who are strangers for one another) saying goodbye to their family at the airport before
leaving for their trip to America. Strangely enough the two strangers (the boy and the girl) end
up sitting next to one anther on the airplane. Following the movie, participants were asked to fill
out the same stereotype survey. The third group was the control group with 45 participants.
Since they were the control group, they were not asked to see any movie clips, but to simply fill
out the same stereotype survey based on their past experiences and knowledge of the culture. All
subjects were given a consent form prior to their participation, which explained the purpose of
the study and the fact that their participation is entirely voluntary. No demographic information
was asked on the survey, since this was not relevant to the study. The surveys collected were
entirely anonymous.
One of the principal investigators involved in this research study is from India and is of
the East Indian Culture and therefore, she herself did not conduct the surveys because it would
create a social desirability bias. In order to eliminate any such biases, the investigators appointed
a confederate who was trained to conduct the research study. The confederate was also given an
introduction to read to the participants prior to showing the movie clips so that they would have
some framework to understand the movie with.
Instrument
The stereotype survey that the participants were given included 20 adjectives that they
had to asses on a Likert scale of 1 to 5 (strongly disagree to strongly agree). The survey was
Media Stereotyping 18
constructed using Leonard & Locke’s (1993) model of stereotype adjectives/survey (see the
attached Appendix C for the survey). Most of the stereotype adjectives in the survey are
extracted from the above mentioned source; however a few were modified and changed in order
to match the purpose of this particular research study. The survey instrument contained the
following 20 adjectives: traditional, modern, submissive, dominant, individualistic, collectivistic,
liberal, conservative, intelligent, knowledgeable, direct, indirect, noisy, calm, rich, poor,
aggressive, passive, emotional, and practical.
Data Collection/Analysis
All the data was collected within two weeks of each other. The surveys were conducted
on pieces of paper. The appointed confederate went into the different undergraduate COM 110
classes to conduct the surveys. Only the principal investigators and the confederate were able to
see the surveys. After the data collection was completed, only the two principal investigators
involved in the study had access to the data which was securely stored. Once the data was
entered into SPSS software and analyzed, the surveys were destroyed in order to maintain
anonymity.
Results
This particular research study employed a quantitative analysis technique. Since this
study is intended to be a pilot study, significance of 0.10 or lower is acceptable. Its objective
was to compare perceptions of students about the East Indian Culture. Since there were a total of
three groups involved in the study, a One-way ANOVA test was utilized to analyze the data.
The means and standard deviations of the three groups of students for each stereotype adjective
who watched a Hollywood movie, a Bollywood movie or no movie are shown below in Table 1.
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Table 1
Mean and Standard Deviations of Students Seeing (or Not Seeing) Films on India
Stereotype
Conditional Variable
Adjectives
No Movie
Hollywood
Bollywood
Traditional
4.09 (0.83) a
3.73 (0.83)
3.62 (0.87) a
Modern
2.60 (0.79) a
2.30 (0.79) b
3.31 (0.91) a b
Submissive
3.09 (0.61)
2.97 (0.61)
3.05 (0.60)
Dominant
2.75 (0.97)
3.03 (0.97)
2.92 (1.04)
Individualistic
3.09 (1.06)
2.86 (1.06)
3.13 (1.11)
Collectivistic
3.48 (0.67)
3.36 (0.67)
3.41 (0.76)
Liberal
2.56 (0.98)
2.65 (0.98)
2.54 (0.72)
Conservative
3.58 (0.96)
3.30 (0.96)
3.51 (0.74)
Intelligent
3.95 (0.69) a
3.22 (0.69) a b
3.90 (0.75) b
Knowledgeable
3.91 (0.80) a
3.38 (0.80) a b
3.92 (0.79) b
Direct
3.33 (0.75)
3.46 (0.75)
3.41 (0.93)
Indirect
2.79 (0.67)
2.70 (0.67)
2.87 (0.94)
Noisy
2.93 (0.94) a
4.27 (0.94) a b
2.79 (0.73) b
Calm
3.23 (0.99) a
2.22 (0.99) a b
3.36 (0.98) b
Rich
2.64 (0.87) a
1.95 (0.87) a b
2.87 (0.74) b
Poor
3.36 (0.84) a
3.97 (0.84) a b
3.03 (0.93) b
Aggressive
2.58 (0.70) a
3.11 (0.70) a b
2.72 (0.77) b
Passive
3.33 (0.68) a
2.86 (0.68) a
3.18 (0.75)
Emotional
3.26 (0.69)
3.30 (0.69)
3.44 (0.62)
Media Stereotyping 20
(Table 1 Continued)
Practical
3.33 (0.57)
3.49 (0.57) a
3.10 (0.93) a
NOTE: Standard deviations appear in parenthesis. Means are calculated on a 5-point Likert
scale (strongly disagree to strongly agree). Common superscripts on each line represent
significant differences (p < 0.10).
The ANOVA results indicate that there was a significant effect of media (watching a
Hollywood movie, a Bollywood movie or no movie) on the following stereotype adjectives:
traditional (F=3.28, p<0.10), modern (F=14.89, p<0.10), intelligent (F=11.08, p<0.10),
knowledgeable, (F=5.76, p<0.10), noisy (F=33.99, p<0.10), calm (F=16.62, p<0.10), rich
(F=15.02, p<0.10), poor (F=13.07, p<0.10), aggressive (F=5.11, p<0.10), passive (F=4.23,
p<0.10), practical (F=2.64, p<0.10). See Appendix D for detailed ANOVA results.
Post hoc Scheffe’s tests indicate that students who did not watch any movie perceived
Indians to be more traditional than the students who watched a Bollywood movie. Students who
watched Hum Tum, (the Bollywood movie) reported that Indians are more modern when
compared to the students who watched the Hollywood movie or no movie at all. According to
the post hoc tests, students who watched the Bollywood movie, Hum Tum or no movie perceived
Indians to be more intelligent and knowledgeable than the students who watched the Hollywood
movie. Students who watched City of Joy (the Hollywood movie) perceived Indians to be noisier
and less calm when compared to students who did not watch any movie. Also students who
watched City of Joy considered Indians to be poorer when compared to students who watched no
movie or the Bollywood movie. On the other hand, students who watched Bollywood movie or
no movie perceived that Indians are richer when compared to students who watched the
Media Stereotyping 21
Hollywood movie. The post hoc tests also indicate that students who watched Hollywood movie
considered Indians to be more aggressive than students who watched the Bollywood movie or no
movie. Students who watched the Hollywood movie reported that Indians are less passive when
compared to students who did not watch any movie. Furthermore, students who watched
Hollywood movie perceived Indians to be more practical when compared to students who
watched the Bollywood movie.
Discussion
Interpretations/Implications
The study indicates that movie watching did have a significant effect on students’
perceptions of East Indians and their culture. Specifically, movie watching had an effect on the
following stereotypical traits: traditional, modern, intelligent, knowledgeable, noisy, calm, rich,
poor, aggressive, passive, and practical. These effects of movie watching on cultural perceptions
can be related to cultivation theory, which in essence says that continuous media exposure
cultivates attitudes which are more consistent with the media than with the actual reality. In
accordance with the cultivation theory, students who watched the Bollywood movie Hum Tum
perceived East Indians to be modern, intelligent, knowledgeable, and rich. On the other hand,
students who watched the Hollywood movie, City of Joy perceived East Indians to be noisy,
poor, and aggressive.
The findings of this research study have implications for various individuals: educators,
communication scholars, intercultural/interethnic trainers and consultants, movie makers
(producers and directors), and the average public in general. Specifically instructors who use
movies as a teaching tool or an activity to inform their students’ about other cultures will find
value in the results of this particular study. Knowing if there are any benefits or harms in
Media Stereotyping 22
showing movies made in Hollywood to teach about different cultures as opposed to showing a
movie made in the actual culture itself, has great value. Overall implications of the findings are
the fact that these results are informing us of how media can influence us and shape our
perceptions and stereotypes of other cultures. The results also are implying that one should not
solely rely on media as its only source of information, especially when they can create negative
stereotypes about other cultures. Information gained through media should be analyzed for its
validity, reliability, and bias otherwise such stereotypes result in ignorance about a particular
culture.
Strengths/Limitations
Similar to most studies, this particular study also contains a few strengths and limitations
that researchers admit to. One strength of this study is that it involves 121 participants, which is
a large enough number to give statistical value to the study. Furthermore, with a large random
sample such as this, the results of the study can be generalized. Another strength of the study is
that in order to eliminate the social desirability bias, the principal investigators appointed a
confederate to conduct the survey. Lastly, the researchers did a cross analysis and comparison of
three groups in which they were able to not only understand what views are held about the East
Indian Culture, but also see if media impacts those views. In addition to this, most cross cultural
studies done thus far in relation to Asia have mostly included Japanese and Chinese, but this
study attempts to look at a different group of Asians, specifically the East Indians. Lastly,
another strength of the study is that it utilized a very short, brief one-page survey with only 20
adjectives, which eliminates the survey-taking fatigue.
There are few limitations in this study as well. First obvious limitation is that it utilized
undergraduate students as the participants of the study, which is not representative of the general
Media Stereotyping 23
population. Second limitation of the study is that while some might consider a random sample of
121 to be sufficient, others might suggest using a larger sample of participants. Therefore, this
could be viewed as both, a strength and a limitation of the study. In addition, this research being
an exploratory study (pilot study), results with significance of 0.10 or lower was accepted. This
is a limitation of the study as well.
Suggestions for Future Research
Researchers suggest that for future study, if given more time and resources, one should
include a larger random sample of participants that is not limited to undergraduate students only,
but one that is representative of the general population. Another suggestion of value for future
research would be to conduct a longitudinal study/analysis that examines the stereotypes and
perceptions of individuals over many years. Lastly, in the future with a larger sample, results
with significance value of 0.05 (95%) should be accepted as compared to 0.10 (90%)
significance value.
Conclusion
Very rarely we think about what we watch on TV or in movies. Very rarely we stop to
wonder if what is being shown is even true. Very rarely we stop to analyze the impact that TV
has on us. Very rarely we speculate how media might shape our perceptions and possibly build
the stereotypes that we come to believe as the truth. This particular study sheds light on this
phenomenon. Its objective is to make individuals understand that what we see and what we
show has a significant impact on others and therefore, we should be selective in our choices.
Media Stereotyping 24
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Media Stereotyping 28
Appendix A: Consent Letter Forms
Informed Consent Cover Letter (for movie and survey)
You are being asked to participate in a research study that explores undergraduate students’ perceptions
of the East Indian culture. Participants in this study will watch a short movie clip and then fill out a brief
survey following it. This should take approximately 10-15 minutes to complete. Your participation is
voluntary and there is no penalty for non-participation. Furthermore, you may withdraw from the study at
any time without any penalty. There is no risk involved in participating in this study. Your responses
will remain strictly anonymous. Only the investigators of this study will have access to this information.
By completing and submitting this survey, you are giving us permission to use your answers in our
research report. Please know that your participation is greatly appreciated. Finally, you must be at least
18 or older to participate in this study.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact the following individuals at the phone numbers
provided below:
John R. Baldwin
Dept. of Communication
(309) 438-7969
jrbaldw@ilstu.edu
Bruce Deason
Research Ethics& Compliance
(309) 438-8451
Kashmira Thakkar
Dept. of Communication
(309) 310-6939
kashmirat@gmail.com
Please remove this page form the research survey and keep it for your records.
Thank you for your assistance.
Informed Consent Cover Letter (for survey only)
You are being asked to participate in a research study that explores undergraduate students’ perceptions
of the East Indian culture. Participants in this study will fill out a brief, one-page survey based on their
past knowledge and experiences of the culture. This should take approximately 3-5 minutes to complete.
Your participation is voluntary and there is no penalty for non-participation. Furthermore, you may
withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty. There is no risk involved in participating in
this study. Your responses will remain strictly anonymous. Only the investigators of this study will have
access to this information. By completing and submitting this survey, you are giving us permission to use
your answers in our research report. Please know that your participation is greatly appreciated. Finally,
you must be at least 18 or older to participate in this study.
If you have any questions about this study, please contact the following individuals at the phone numbers
provided below:
John R. Baldwin
Dept. of Communication
(309) 438-7969
jrbaldw@ilstu.edu
Bruce Deason
Research Ethics & Compliance
(309) 438-8451
Kashmira Thakkar
Dept. of Communication
(309) 310-6939
kashmirat@gmail.com
Please remove this page form the research survey and keep it for your records.
Thank you for your assistance.
Media Stereotyping 29
Appendix B: Introductions to the Movie Clips
Directions: Read the following, respective introductions prior to showing the movie clip.
Intro for City of Joy:
You will watch a short movie clip. Following the movie clip, you will fill out a brief,
one-page survey on your perceptions of the East Indian Culture. The movie clip you are about to
watch comes from the movie, “City of Joy.” In this clip, you will see the main character,
Hazzari, a poor Indian man who moves from a small village in India to a big city in India
(Calcutta) with his family in search of a job. As he makes his way through the poor,
overpopulated, polluted, and dirty slums of Calcutta, he ends up coming in contact with an
American doctor who is visiting India at that time. Over the course of their encounter (which is
not shown in this movie clip), the American doctor ends up being a big savior for Hazzari.
Intro for Hum Tum:
You will watch a short movie clip. Following the movie clip, you will fill out a brief,
one-page survey on your perceptions of the East Indian Culture. The movie clip you are about to
watch comes from the movie, “Hum Tum.” In this clip, you will see two main characters, Karan
(the boy) and Rhea (the girl), who are smart, educated, good-looking, modernized, youngsters in
India. Initially both are strangers to one another, who coincidentally happen to be at the New
Delhi airport in India, saying goodbyes to their family as they both leave for their flight to New
York to study abroad. Later, in the clip you will see that both of them (Karan and Rhea) end up
sitting next to one another on the airplane and go from being strangers to acquaintances in which
Karan tries to act like a “playboy” at the sight of a beautiful girl (Rhea) sitting next to him.
Media Stereotyping 30
Appendix C: Research Study Survey
East Indian Culture Survey
Directions: On a scale of 1 to 5, circle the appropriate number for each of the following items
about your perceptions of the East Indian culture.
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor disagree
Agree
1
2
3
4
1) Traditional
1
2
3
4
5
2) Modern
1
2
3
4
5
3) Submissive
1
2
3
4
5
4) Dominant
1
2
3
4
5
5) Individualistic
1
2
3
4
5
6) Collectivistic
1
2
3
4
5
7) Liberal
1
2
3
4
5
8) Conservative
1
2
3
4
5
9) Intelligent
1
2
3
4
5
10) Knowledgeable
1
2
3
4
5
11) Direct
1
2
3
4
5
12) Indirect
1
2
3
4
5
13) Noisy
1
2
3
4
5
14) Calm
1
2
3
4
5
15) Rich
1
2
3
4
5
16) Poor
1
2
3
4
5
17) Aggressive
1
2
3
4
5
18) Passive
1
2
3
4
5
19) Emotional
1
2
3
4
5
20) Practical
1
2
3
4
5
Strongly agree
5
Media Stereotyping 31
Appendix D: ANOVA Results Table
Anova Results Table
Sum of
Squares
Traditional
Modern
Submissive
Dominant
Individualistic
Collectivistic
Liberal
df
Mean
Square
Between Groups
5.161
2
2.580
Within Groups
92.164
117
.788
Total
97.325
119
Between Groups
20.608
2
10.304
Within Groups
80.316
116
.692
Total
100.924
118
.292
2
.146
Within Groups
46.498
116
.401
Total
46.790
118
Between Groups
1.599
2
.800
Within Groups
95.992
117
.820
Total
97.592
119
Between Groups
1.554
2
.777
Within Groups
134.311
116
1.158
Total
135.866
118
.261
2
.130
Within Groups
66.218
114
.581
Total
66.479
116
.262
2
Between Groups
Between Groups
Between Groups
.131
F
Sig
3.276
.041
14.882
.000
.364
.696
.975
.380
.671
.513
.225
.799
.154
.857
Media Stereotyping 32
Conservative
Intelligent
Knowledgeable
Direct
Indirect
Noisy
Calm
Within Groups
98.729
116
Total
98.992
118
Between Groups
1.709
2
.854
Within Groups
83.938
116
.724
Total
85.647
118
Between Groups
12.939
2
6.469
Within Groups
67.767
116
.584
Total
80.706
118
Between Groups
7.392
2
3.696
Within Groups
75.108
117
.642
Total
82.500
119
.370
2
.185
Within Groups
82.067
116
.707
Total
82.437
118
.543
2
.271
Within Groups
69.205
116
.597
Total
69.748
118
Between Groups
50.662
2
25.331
Within Groups
86.447
116
.745
Total
137.109
118
Between Groups
29.820
2
14.910
Within Groups
104.972
117
.897
Total
134.792
119
Between Groups
Between Groups
.851
1.181
.311
11.074
.000
5.757
.004
.262
.770
.455
.636
33.991
.000
16.618
.000
Media Stereotyping 33
Rich
Poor
Aggressive
Passive
Emotional
Practical
Between Groups
17.567
2
8.784
Within Groups
68.433
117
.585
Total
86.000
119
Between Groups
17.463
2
8.731
Within Groups
78.129
117
.668
Total
95.592
119
Between Groups
5.818
2
2.909
Within Groups
65.930
116
.568
Total
71.748
118
Between Groups
4.339
2
2.169
Within Groups
59.510
116
.513
Total
63.849
118
.713
2
.356
Within Groups
63.506
116
.547
Total
64.218
118
Between Groups
2.834
2
1.417
Within Groups
62.275
116
.537
Total
65.109
118
Between Groups
15.018
.000
13.075
.000
5.118
.007
4.229
.017
.651
.523
2.640
.076