Running Head: OBSTRUCTION OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT CONSEQUENCES
Elements of Communication that Obstruct Consequences for Sexual Harassment Offenders in
the Workplace
Karli Rupert
CMST 4899: Senior Project
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Abstract
This project is the examination of how specific means of communication contribute to the
problem of identifying sexual harassment behaviors, and how this difficulty suppresses
necessary consequences for the perpetrator. The ambiguity of the term sexual harassment,
norms, organizational culture, and the persona of the victim and sexual harasser are concepts
that are researched. These variables are examined as components to the problem of the
dismissal of sexual harassment cases. Additionally, research presents conflict management
methods to handle sexually inappropriate behavior in an organization.
Keywords: sexual harassment, sexism, ambiguity, norms, organizational culture, persona
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Introduction
It is assumed that female professionals have advanced throughout history regarding
their roles and accomplishments in the workplace. Unfortunately, professional women have
not yet been able to overcome the obstacle of sexual harassment despite the success and
status they have obtained over time. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission (EEOC), in 2011 there were a total of 99,947 sexual harassment charges reported.
(Catalyst, 2013) Considering the idea that victims report not all sexual harassment cases, this is
a large statistic for a society that claims equality in the workforce. Moreover, why do victims
suppress a sexual harassment situation and refrain from reporting the issue? It is a possibility
that those who suffer from sexual misconduct are unsure of whether or not their statements
will be believed by others; therefore, stories are not reported in fear that they will not be taken
seriously. Although it is a cultural norm for women to be successful professionals, why are
they still facing demeaning situations in which they are objectified?
Unwarranted sexually aggressive behavior is a situation that unfortunately does not
always lead to consequences for the perpetrator. This is a crucial idea to grasp because the
likelihood that a female professional will be victimized by behavior like sexual harassment is
highly possible. This research will analyze how female professionals are objectified by their
gender in the workplace, and their accusations are not always taken seriously due to
underlying factors. There are contributing elements that are problematic in identifying sexually
inappropriate behavior. Forms of sexual harassment are not always apparent; therefore some
sexual harassment cases can be dismissed. This project will present the examination of the
underlying factors such as the vague meaning of sexual harassment, social acceptance of
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inappropriate sexual behavior toward females, organizational culture, and how status and
persona determine how seriously a sexual harassment case will be handled.
Literature Review
Ambiguity
There is a lack of shared meaning for the concepts of sexual harassment, sexism, and
sexually aggressive behavior; therefore, individuals can be excused from their inappropriate
behavior. May (2008) presents a case study concerning Senator Packwood and his trial against
sexual harassment. The Senator faced several allegations of sexual misconduct by his female
employees. In media interviews, the Senator acted mislead to the definition of sexual
harassment. Packwood defended himself by stating he was a victim to false accusations since
he was unaware of what constitutes sexually aggressive behavior. Senator Packwood and his
confusion about his behavior being considered as sexual harassment is supported in the study
by Dougherty, Kramer, and Klatzke (2009) and their examination of the Language
Convergence/Meaning Divergence Theory. This theory presents the idea that although humans
understand the same language or symbols; individuals have different interpretations of their
meaning. The connotations of words that individuals will use are based on their background,
experiences, and culture. The difference of meanings for different symbols or words between
men and women can cause behaviors such as sexual harassment to occur in the workplace.
Based on the information provided by May (2008), Doughtery, Kramer, and Klatzke (2009) it can
be determined that when one is accused of sexual harassment behavior, they can dismiss it by
expressing that they were unaware it was offensive since they had a different interpretation of
their actions.
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Norms
The ambiguity of sexual harassment does not specify what exact behaviors are
considered to be inappropriate; therefore, this gives individuals the opportunity to create
various norms depending on the environment. Gray and Ford (2013) define descriptive and
injunctive norms. Descriptive norms describes how people usually react or behave in social
contexts. Injunctive norms are the standard behaviors of how people should react in a
situation; these behaviors are labeled as inappropriate or appropriate in society. In this
experiment authors researched the role of sexist jokes, and the conclusion of the study
revealed that participants found sexist jokes most offensive in the workplace setting and least
offensive in a comedy club setting. Sexism could be identified as a norm in society since it has
been accepted under certain conditions.
The concept of sexism can be either tolerated or prohibited depending on the situation;
moreover, individuals may not be aware of their sexist language and can erroneously use it in
any context. At the conclusion of the experiment conducted by Swim, Mallot, and Stangor
(2004) participants that were rated modern sexists were not aware that their statements and
beliefs were sexist due to the ambiguity of the term. Individuals may not become aware that
their behavior is offensive since norms have accepted subtle language that could lead to
negative connotations. Similarly to the Language Convergence and Meaning Divergence Theory
described by Kramer and Klatzke (2009), this study is another example of how a lack of shared
meaning among individuals can unconsciously cause offensive forms of communication.
Although sexist jokes and language are not necessarily responsible for the enactment of sexual
harassment, the studies of Johnson (2007) and Swim, Mallot, and Stangor(2004) can be
OBSTRUCTION OF SEXUAL HARASSMENT CONSEQUENCES
attributed to the idea that humans use context to make judgments on what is appropriate. To
reiterate, sexual harassment is unclear in definition, and this gives humans the ability to create
their own rules in their environment.
An environment in which norms contribute to whether or not sexist jokes is taken
offensively is exemplified when Johnson (2007) examined how there are subtleties to sexism
that can be dismissed in a particular culture. The author analyzed a variety comedy show
entitled The Man Show. Women’s rights were subtly mocked in the skits and various sexist
jokes were conducted. The show additionally contained contents that sexually objectified
women. The media did not criticize the offensive content because a male audience dominated
the culture of the show; therefore, the norm of the environment determined that the content
was entertaining rather than inappropriate. Although there are specific contexts in which
sexually inappropriate content is accepted or prohibited, individuals may find it difficult to
distinguish between environments. If sexual misconduct is not offensive in areas such as the
research by Johnson (2007) and the examination of sexual objectification for entertainment
value, are individuals able to distinguish various norms for different contexts?
Organizational Culture
Norms outside of the workforce regarding dialect and the lack of specifics in the
definition of sexual harassment creates various interpretations of what is and is not offensive,
and this can be problematic when individuals act upon what they view is acceptable in an
organization. The culture of an organization determines whether or not the predator of
unwarranted sexual behavior will suffer consequences. An example of a culture that is
accepting of unwarranted sexual behavior is exposed in the study of McDonald (2009) in which
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a case study is used to describe a female professional working in a male-dominated
organization. Although she suffered sexual harassment, she had to modify her own habits to
avoid inappropriate behavior rather than her male co-workers facing consequences. The
subject of this research expressed that she only recognized a positive change in the work
environment when more female workers were integrated into the organization; therefore, her
male counterparts no longer dominated her. To reiterate the element of ambiguity, the
subjects of inappropriate behavior by men toward women in these cultures may have occurred
because the men had differing perceptions on offensive sexual behavior. Additionally, the
element of norms is influential in this study. It was accepted in this male-dominated
organization to act upon sexually inappropriate behavior. Therefore, the subject of this study
possibly did not file a report of sexual harassment because her male co-workers and the norms
of her environment dominated her. This female professional may have realized the maledominated culture of the organization determined the behavior of her co-workers, and that
there was minimal chance that her allegations would be taken seriously. In all, the culture of
this particular environment determined the outcome of this sexual harassment case.
On the contrary, Doughtery and Smythe (2004) present a case study in which a female
student-employee at a university accused a male donor of sexual harassment. Due to the
organization’s culture, the allegations were handled efficiently since the employees did not
tolerate such behavior in their environment. It is possible that the victim in this case presented
to her co-workers that sexual harassment was not tolerated in the organization. Following the
case, there may have been a seldom chance that employees of the organization would enact in
sexually aggressive behavior since this case presented an understanding that the culture of the
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department forbid sexual harassment. Therefore, it is assumed that the fellow constituents of
the organization would understand that they would have to suffer consequences if they
behaved in an offensive manner. The research conducted by McDonald (2009) and Doughtery
and Smythe (2004) implies that the environment of an organization and their members controls
the resolution of sexual harassment cases.
Persona of the Victim
Individuals are responsible for creating boundaries in a culture regarding sexual
harassment, but whether or not they believe in a sexual harassment case can also determine
the consequences of the harasser. The persona of both the perpetrator and the victim influence
how eyewitness will perceive a case. It is imperative to have social support when an individual
claims that they are objectified in order for justice to be served by the offender; however, the
social support is determined by extraneous factors. Seiter and Dunn (2000) propose the idea
that aesthetics influence whether or not an individual will be believed when they claim they
suffered from sexual harassment. In an original experiment, the researchers have participants
rate a model dressed in three categories: pristine/attractive, non-pristine/attractive, and
unattractive. The model was rated by how deceptive, genuine, and honest they appeared to
be. They also rated how likely that individual would be harassed. The results indicate that the
“pristine/attractive” model was rated the most honest and likely to be harassed. The
“unattractive” model was rated the most deceptive and least likely to be harassed. This study
concludes that people will have use the “halo effect” or believing other positive qualities about
an individual based off of one quality that they know about. Therefore, this research shows
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that physical appearance alone influences onlooker’s beliefs about the validity of a victim’s
story.
Persona of the Offender
The predator of sexual harassment and their persona also factor into bystander’s
perception of a case. Murphy, Driscoll, and Kelly (1999) conducted an original study to
determine the difference between non-verbal behaviors of a person likely or not likely to
sexually harass. The conclusion of the study revealed men that rated high likelihood to sexually
harass used more non-verbal cues expressing dominance than men that rated low likelihood to
sexually harass. These dominant non-verbal behaviors include when an individual stares at the
person they are conversing with, open body posture, and indirect body positioning. The article
also defines non-verbal behaviors expressing sexual interest. This includes flirting, smiling, and
head cants. Authors state that an individual more likely to harass their counterpart may avoid
conversing for extended periods of time-yet still displaying these non-verbal behaviors. It is
believed that men who are more likely to harass do not require much commitment before a
sexual encounter; therefore, this type of male does not require much time conversing with a
female and will just communicate through non-verbal cues. The persona of the male predator
is concluded in this study; however, a question arises about the men that do not showcase
these non-verbal cues. If a male does not enact upon these non-verbal mannerisms, will
onlookers believe it if they are accused of sexual harassment? For example, if bystanders never
see the harasser smiling, flirting, or using open body posture, will they have trouble believing
that they are guilty? In Seiter and Dunn’s (2000) case, similar questions arise. What if a victim is
not perceived by others as “pristine” or “attractive,” will eyewitnesses believe that they were
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sexually harassed? Considering both cases, it is imperative to understand that there should not
be a stereotype on sexual harassers or victims of sexual harassment. Extraneous factors should
be disregarded when evaluating a sexual harassment case. The research constructed by Seiter
and Dunn (2000) and Murphy, Driscoll and Kelly (1999), surmise the idea that how people
present themselves can indicate how others will judge a sexual harassment case.
Summary:
In all, research presents the idea that norms (McDonald, 2009), the varying
interpretations of the vague meaning of sexual harassment (Dougherty, Kramer, Klatzke, 2009),
an onlooker’s perceptions of aesthetics (Seiter and Dunn, 2000) can determine how unjustified
behavior is disdained in an organization. It is essential for future research to investigate specific
tactics organizations use to bury the issue of sexual harassment and how they are able to get
away with it.
Hickson, Grierson, and Linder (1991) express that sexual harassment leads to emotional
issues for the victim. The victim can become withdrawn from the environment. They can feel a
sense of guilt wondering if it was something they did to provoke that kind of attention from the
harasser. Furthermore, sexual harassment can cause economic issues. The authors provide the
example of University environment. If the victim legally punishes the harasser, the issue can
tarnish the reputation of the University; which in turn, loses the tuition funds of potential
students. This research is an example of how damaging sexual harassment can be on different
levels. Unfortunately, research shows that sexual harassment is still prevalent in the workforce
and there should be tactics to reveal how the issue is concealed in organizations.
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Conflict Management of Sexual Harassment
Since the aftermath of sexual harassment is damaging, prevention methods are crucial
to take place in organizations. Hickson, Grierson, and Linder (1991) highlight institutional and
administrative response, faculty response, and student or victim response to the conflict.
Institutional and administrative response includes workshops to educate employees on the
subject, policies to prevent the conflict, followed by confidentiality and documentation. Faculty
response involves acknowledging the reality of the situation and obtaining awareness. Lastly,
the victim response means to address the issue to a trusted person, use documentation,
understand the organization’s policies against sexual harassment, and go through the necessary
legal process to resolve the conflict.
H1: Organizational culture, differing shared meanings, and self-representations of both
the victim and the harasser explain a.) How a harasser is able to get away with sexual
harassment b.) Additionally, as a result, how these factors contribute to a victim’s decision of
whether or not to report a case.
RQ1: Are there organizational processes we should put in place to prevent underlying
factors from influencing the outcome of a sexual harassment case?
RQ2: Are there other cultural strategies we could use to make it clear that it is
unacceptable to allow the ambiguity of sexual harassment, norms and culture, and the persona
of the victim and perpetrator influence how seriously a sexual harassment case will be
handled?
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Limitations and Future Research:
Although this research revealed obscure factors that influence how a sexual harassment
case is managed, there was a significant limitation to this study. The lack of experimentation to
support these variables is problematic because the project can still be viewed as a set of ideas
rather than evidence. It is important to use statistical evidence and examples of how humans
lack shared meaning in sexual harassment, how norms and organizational culture create rules,
and how humans use extraneous factors to determine whether or not they believe a victim’s
testimony. Concrete evidence and statistics could possibly influence more organizations to
implement sexual harassment education in their employment training. Moreover,
organizations could be more understanding of the notion that sexual harassment is not always
obvious and that subtle offensive means of communication should be addressed in the
environment. A suggestion for future research is to employ these concepts in a field
experiment to reveal that these factors are an issue in how sexual harassment cases are
handled.
Conclusion:
This paper analyzes the role of organizational culture, meaning divergence, and selfrepresentations. These concepts were utilized to examine how forms of communication make
it difficult to identify sexual harassment behaviors; which in turn, influences the severity of
punishment for the sexual harasser. The variables of this study identified concepts that
determine how seriously a sexual harassment case will be handled. While a sexist behavior
may seem harmless at first because the organizational environment, the misunderstanding of
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offensive behavior, and the way in which the victim and harasser are perceived by others, it
indeed can ignite into more aggressive behavior because the harasser will test what they can
get away with in the workplace. It may appear that the workforce has advanced in managing
sexual discrimination; however, this project addresses the notion that certain forms of
communication provide individuals with the freedom to cover inappropriate behavior and allow
it in an organization. The current research reveals that sexual harassment is derived from
various forms; sometimes sexual harassment is obvious and sometimes it is hidden. This
research is important for the Communications industry because it could provoke more dynamic
employee training methods in organizations. Individuals will be able to distinguish between
inappropriate and appropriate behavior. Sexual harassment victims should feel comfortable to
report their cases regardless of its severity. Recognizing these variables is significant because
females are still objectified in the workforce and future organizations will be able to shape a
more conducive environment.
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References:
Catalyst. Quick Take: Sex Discrimination and Sexual Harassment. New York: Catalyst, November
19, 2013.
Dougherty, D. S., Kramer, M. W., Klatzke, S. R., & Rogers, T. K. (2009). Language convergence
and meaning divergence: A meaning centered communication theory. Communication
Monographs, 76(1), 20-46. doi:10.1080/03637750802378799
Gray, J., & Ford, T. E. (2013). The role of social context in the interpretation of sexist humor.
Humor: International Journal Of Humor Research, 26(2), 277-293. doi:10.1515/humor2013-0017
Hickson III, M., Grierson, R. D., & Linder, B. C. (1991). A communication perspective on sexual
harassment: Affiliative nonverbal behaviors in asynchronous relationships.
Communication Quarterly, 39(2), 111-118.
Johnson, A. (2007). The subtleties of blatant sexism. Communication & Critical/Cultural Studies,
4(2), 166-183. doi:10.1080/14791420701296521
May, M. (2008). Apologies, denials, and attacks: The strategies used by Robert Packwood to
dismiss charges of sexual harrassment. Conference Papers -- National Communication
Association, 1.
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McDonald, J. (2009). The evolution of dominant discourses of sexual harassment in a maledominated and masculine gendered organization: A narrative analysis of one woman's
experiences. Conference Papers -- National Communication Association, 1.
Murphy, J. D., Driscoll, D. M., & Kelly, J. R. (1999). Differences in the nonverbal behavior of men
who vary in the likelihood to sexually harass. Journal Of Social Behavior & Personality,
14(1), 113-128.
Seiter, J. S., & Dunn, D. (2000). Beauty and believability in sexual harassment cases: Does
physical attractiveness affect perceptions of veracity and the likelihood of being
harassed? Communication Research Reports, 17(2), 203-209.
Swim, J. K., Mallett, R., & Stangor, C. (2004). Understanding subtle sexism: detection and use of
sexist language. Sex Roles, 51(3/4), 117-128.