The “Big Stick”: America and the World, 1901 – 1917
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Foreign affairs seemed very remote to most Americans. This made it appealing
for Theodore Roosevelt and later presidents.
The president did not need to concern himself with Congress or the courts. He did
not have to care about public opinion. Overseas the president could exercise
power without constraints.
Roosevelt and “Civilization”
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Roosevelt was well suited both ideologically and temperamentally for an activist
foreign policy. He believed in the value of using American power in the world.
He used the African proverb “Speak softly, but carry a big stick”.
He had two different standards for using that power. He believed an important
distinction existed between the “civilized” and “uncivilized” nations of the world.
“Civilized” nations were white and Anglo-Saxon or Teutonic.
“Uncivilized” nations were nonwhite, Latin or Slavic.
Equally important as racism was economic development. Japan, a rapidly
industrializing society, earned admission to the ranks of the “civilized”.
Civilized nations, by Roosevelt’s definition, produced industrial goods and
uncivilized nations were suppliers of raw materials and markets. Therefore a
civilized society had the right and duty to intervene in the affairs of a “backward
nation” to preserve order and stability- for the sake of both nations.
This belief was an important reason for Roosevelt’s early support of the
development of American sea power. By 1906 the American navy was second in
the world in size and strength behind Great Britain.
Protecting the “Open Door” in Asia
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Europeans were impressed with US involvement in global politics as a result of
John Hay’s policies in China.
Russia, Japan, GB, France and Germany had all established “spheres of
influence” meaning they could dominate trade and investment within their sphere
and shut out competitors.
Hay sent out a diplomatic note to these nations in 1899 he asked them to accept
the concept of an Open Door which meant all nations would have equal access to
trading privileges in China.
No nation rejected the concept and Hay declared he had established an Open Door
policy.
Boxer Rebellion - In 1900 xenophobia and nationalism were prevalent in China.
In 1900 a secret society of Chinese nationalists (the Society of Harmonious Fists)
or Boxers attacked foreign settlements and murdered Christian missionaries.
US troops as part of an expeditionary force marched to Peking and crushed the
rebellion. China had to pay huge indemnities which weakened the imperial
regime.
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Hay feared the expeditionary force in China might attempt to occupy the country
and destroy its independence.
He wrote a second round of “Open Door notes” to the imperialistic powers stating
1) US commitment to preserve China’s integrity. 2) Safeguard “equal and
impartial trade with all parts of the Chinese empire.
Hay’s notes set US policy in China for McKinley and Roosevelt but also for
future presidents. In the 1930’s this Open Door policy for China would strongly
influence US relations with Japan.
East Asia
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Japan and the US were new imperialist powers in East Asia at the start of the 20th
century. During Roosevelt’s presidency their relationship was at first friendly but
then grew more competitive.
Russian-Japanese War
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In 1904 the Japanese staged a surprise attack on the Russian fleet in Manchuria, a
province of China, that both Russia and Japan hoped to control.
Roosevelt did not want either nation to become dominant there so agreed to a
Japanese request to mediate an end to the conflict.
Russia faring badly in the war had no choice but to agree. At a peace conference
in Portsmouth, NH in 1905 Roosevelt had the embattled Russians recognize
Japan’s territorial gains and the Japanese agreed to cease fighting and not to
expand anymore.
He also negotiated with the Japanese to ensure the United States could continue to
trade freely in the region.
Roosevelt won the Nobel peace Prize in 1906 for his work in ending the RussoJapanese War.
Japan emerged as the strongest naval power in the Pacific and began to exclude
American trade from many of the territories it controlled.
To ensure that the Japanese government recognized the power of the United
States. Roosevelt sent sixteen battleships of the new American navy on a journey
around the world which included a stop in Japan to remind the Japanese of the
strength of the United States.
This was called the “Great White Fleet” because the ships were temporarily
painted white for the voyage.
“Gentlemen’s agreement”
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A major problem between US and Japanese relations concerned the laws of
California discriminating against Japanese Americans.
San Francisco required Japanese American children to attend segregated schools
this was a national insult to Japan.
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In 1908 Roosevelt arranged an informal understanding or “gentlemen’s
agreement”. Japan agreed to restrict the emigration of Japanese workers to the US
and Roosevelt persuaded California to repeal its discriminatory laws.
Root-Takahira Agreement (1908) – Secretary of State, Elihu Root and Japanese
Ambassador Takahira exchanged notes pledging the following: 1) mutual respect
for each nation’s Pacific possessions and 2) support for the Open Door policy in
China.
The Iron-Fisted Neighbour
 Roosevelt took particular interest in Latin America. He did not want to share
trading rights or military control with any other nations.
 Roosevelt embarked on a series of ventures in the Caribbean and South America.
He established a pattern of American intervention in the region that would long
survive his presidency.
 Crucial to Roosevelt’s decision making was an incident in 1902 in Venezuela.
The government reneged on debts to European bankers. Naval forces of Britain,
Italy and Germany blockaded the Venezuelan coast in response. The German
navy began to bombard the Venezuelan coast.
 Roosevelt used the threat of American naval power to pressure Germany to
withdraw.
 This incident persuaded Roosevelt that European intrusions into Latin America
could result in aggression or instability or irresponsibility (such as defaulting on
debts) within the Latin American nations. It was also a direct violation of the
Monroe Doctrine.
 In 1904 he announced the “Roosevelt Corollary” to the Monroe Doctrine.
(Source questions on edline)
 The US had the right to oppose European intervention and to intervene itself in
the domestic affairs of its neighbors if they could not maintain order and national
sovereignty on their own.
 This also meant that the US would send gunboats to a Latin American country
that was delinquent in paying its debts. The country’s major ports would be
occupied by the US who would manage the collection and customs
 The first opportunity to use it was the Dominican Republic. A revolution toppled
its corrupt govt in 1903. The new regime did not do any better in dealing with the
countries debts to European nations.
 Roosevelt established an American receivership controlling Dominican customs
and distributing the revenues to the Dominicans and foreign creditors.
 1902 the US granted political independence to Cuba but only after the new govt
agreed to the Platt Amendment.
 The amendment gave the US the right to prevent any foreign power from
intruding into the new nation. In 1906 domestic uprisings threatened the island’s
stability. American troops landed there and quelled the fighting and remained
there for three years.
 Over the next 20 years US presidents used the Roosevelt Corollary to justify
sending forces into Haiti, Honduras, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua.
 The long-term result of these interventions was poor US relations with the entire
region of Latin America.
The Panama Canal
 As a result of the Spanish-American War, the new empire spread from Puerto
Rico in the Caribbean to the Philippines in the Pacific.
 As a strategy for holding on to these possessions the US needed a canal through
Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
 Roosevelt decided to build a canal through the rugged terrain of the isthmus of
Panama in Columbia. It was the site of a failed effort by a French company to
construct a channel.
 The Hay-Paunceforte Treaty (1901) made with Great Britain cancelled an earlier
treaty of 1850 which said any canal in Central America would be under joint
British-US control. The US could now build a canal without British involvement.
 Roosevelt send John Hay, secretary of state, to negotiate an agreement with
Columbian diplomats so construction could begin immediately.
 The Columbian government refused to agree to this which infuriated Roosevelt.
With the help of the chief engineer of the French project, Philippe Bunau-Varilla,
he supported a revolt in Panama.
 Roosevelt landed troops from the USS Nashville in Panama to “maintain order”.
This prevented Columbian forces from suppressing the rebellion and Roosevelt
recognized Panama as an independent nation.
 The new government signed a treaty, the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903,
which gave the United States long-term control of a canal zone.
 The canal was completed in 1914 thanks to the skills of two Army colonels,
George Goethals, the chief engineer of the canal and Dr William Gorgas, whose
efforts eliminated the mosquitoes that spread deadly yellow fever.
 It was the most celebrated accomplishment of Roosevelt’s presidency.
 Latin Americans were resentful of the heavy handed tactics used to secure the
canal zone. In 1921, Congress voted to pay Columbia an indemnity $25 million
for its loss of Panama.
Peace Efforts
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The purpose of the great white fleet and all the other applications of the big-stick
policy was to maintain the peace between rival nations.
Roosevelt was awarded the Nobel Peace prize for settling the Russo-Japanese
war.
He helped arrange and direct the Algeciras Conference in Spain, which succeeded
in settling a conflict between France and Germany over claims in Morocco.
The president also directed US participation at the 2nd International Peace
Conference at the Hague in 1907, which discussed rules for limiting warfare.