Systemic organization of language.
1. Subject of theoretical grammar.
Grammar may be practical and theoretical. The aim of practical grammar is the description of grammar rules
that are necessary to understand and formulate sentences. The aim of theoretical grammar is to offer
explanation for these rules. Generally speaking, theoretical grammar deals with the language as a functional
system.
2, 4 Grammatical stucture of the english language.
According to their grammatical structure languages can be synthetic (1 ) and analytical ( 2 ).
In 1 – the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of the –i-, -n-, -f-, -t-.
In 2 - the grammatical relations between words are expressed by means of the form words and word order. 2
forms are mostly proper to verbs. Its form word has no lexical meaning and expresses different grammatical
categories: mood, person, tense, voice, and a notional word ( infinitive or a participle). The 2 forms are:
tense and aspect of the verb forms ( continuous, perfect, all future forms ).
The passive voice.
Subjunctive mood.
However there are some synthetic features in English:
endings -s- in 3rd person sing. In the Present Simple.
endings –s in plural of nouns.
endings –‘s in genitive case.
endings – ed in the Past Simple.
Inner flexions – woman – women, man – men, speak – spoke.
The synthetic form of the subjunctive mood
3. Morphology and syntax as two main parts of grammar.
Syntax, originating from the Greek words συν (syn, meaning "co-" or "together") and τάξις (táxis, meaning
"sequence, order, arrangement"), can in linguistics be described as the study of the rules, or "patterned
relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together. Syntax attempts to systematize
descriptive grammar, and is unconcerned with prescriptive grammar (see Prescription and description).
There exist innumerable theories of formal syntax — theories that have in time risen or fallen in influence.
Most theories of syntax at least share two commonalities: First, they hierarchically group subunits into
constituent units (phrases). Second, they provide some system of rules to explain patterns of
acceptability/grammaticality and unacceptability/ungrammaticality. Most formal theories of syntax offer
explanations of the systematic relationships between syntactic form and semantic meaning. Syntactic
category: is either a phrasal category, such as noun phrase or verb phrase, which can be decomposed into
smaller syntactic categories, or a lexical category, such as noun or verb, which cannot be further decomposed.
In terms of phrase structure rules, phrasal categories can occur to the left side of the arrow while lexical
categories cannot. The lexical categories are traditionally called the parts of speech. They include nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and so on. Morphology is a sub discipline of linguistics that studies word structure. While words are
generally accepted as being the smallest units of syntax, it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can
be related to other words by rules. Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies such rules across and
within languages
5. Dichtonomy of language and speech
A dichotomy is any splitting of a whole into exactly two non-overlapping parts. In other words, it is a mutually
exclusive bipartition of elements. i.e. nothing can belong simultaneously to both parts, and everything must
belong to one part or the other. They are often contrasting and spoken of as "opposites." The term comes from
dichotomos (divided): dich- ([in] two) temnein (to cut). The above applies directly when the term is used in
mathematics, linguistics. For example, if there is a concept A, and it is split into parts B and not-B, then the
parts form a dichotomy: they are mutually exclusive, since no part of B is contained in not-B and vice-versa,
and they are jointly exhaustive, since they cover all of A, and together again give A.
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6. Systemic relations in language. Syntagmatic relations.
A linguistic unit enters into syntagmatic relations with other units of the same level it occurs with. SR exist at
every language level. They can be of three different types: coordinate, subordinate and p r e d i c a t i v e .
a)
Coordinate SR exist between the homogeneous linguistic units that ax
that is, they are the relations of independence: you and me; They were tired but happy.
Suhordinated SR are the relations of dependence when one linguistic unit depends on the othex- teach + er morphological level; a smart student - word-group level; predicative and subordinate clauses - sentence
level. Predicative SR are the relations of interdependence: primary and secondary
7. Systemic relations in language. Paradigmatic relations
A linguistic unit can enter into relations of two different kinds. It enters into paradigmatic relations
with all the units -that can also occur in the same environment. are relations based on the principles of
similarity. They exist between the units that can substitute one another. According to different principles of
similarity PR can be of three types: semantic, formal and functional.
Semantic PR are based on the similarity of meaning: a book to read = a book for reading.
Formal PR are based on the similarity of forms. Such relations exist between the
members of a paradigm: man - men; play - played'- will play ~ is playing.
Functional PR are based on the similarity of function. They are established between
the elements that can occur in the same position.
8. Linguistic units.
In fact, the word is considered to be the central (but not the only) linguistic unit of language' Linguistic units
(or in other words - signs) can go into three types of relations:
a)
The relation between a unit and an object in the world around us (objective reality). - refers to a
definite piece of furniture. It may be not only an object but a process, state, quality, etc. .
This type of meaning is called referential meaning of a unit. It is semantics that studies the referential meaning
of units. b)
The relation between a unit and other units (inner relations between units). No unit can be
used independently; it serves as an element in the system of other units. This kind of meaning is called
syntactic. Formal relation of units to one another is studied by syntactics (or syntax). c) The relation between
a unit and a person who uses it. As we know too well, when we are saying something, we usually have some
purpose in mind. We use the language as an instrument for our purpose (e.g.). One and the same word or
sentence may acquire different meanings in communication. This type of meaning is called pragmatic. The
study of the relationship between linguistic units and the users of those units is done by pragmatics.
Morphology.
1, 2 The morpheme, classification of morphemes, types of morpheme.
Morpheme. is the smallest language unit that carries a semantic interpretation. Morphemes are, generally, a
distinctive collocation of phonemes (as the free form pin or the bound form -s of pins) having no smaller
meaningful members. Types of morphemes. Free morphemes like town, dog can appear with other lexemes (as
in town hall or dog house) or they can stand alone, or "free". Allomorphs are variants of a morpheme, e.g. the
plural marker in Bound morphemes like "un-" appear only together with other morphemes to form a lexeme.
Bound morphemes in general tend to be prefixes and suffixes. Morphemes existing in only one bound form are
known as "cranberry" morphemes, from the "cran" in that very word. Inflectional morphemes modify a word's
tense, number, aspect, and so on. (as in the dog morpheme if written with the plural marker morpheme s
becomes dogs). Derivational morphemes can be added to a word to create (derive) another word: the addition
of "-ness" to "happy," for example, to give "happiness."
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3. The word as the smallest naming unit.
A word is a unit of language that carries meaning and consists of one or more morphemes which are linked
more or less tightly together. Typically a word will consist of a root or stem and zero or more affixes. Words
can be combined to create phrases, clauses and sentences. A word consisting of two or more stems joined
together is called a compound. As the word is the main unit of traditional grammatical theory, it serves the
basis of the distinction which is frequently "drawn between morpfiology and syntax. Morphology deals
with the internal structure of words, peculiarities of their grammatical categories and their semantics while
traditional syntax deals with the rules governing combination of words in sentences (and texts in modern
linguistics). We can therefore say that the word is the main unit of morphology. It is difficult to arrive at a
one-sentence definition of such a complex linguistic unit as the word. It is also the basic nominative unit of
language with the help of which the naming function of language is realized. One of the most characteristic
features of the word is its indivisibility. As any other linguistic unit the word is a bilateral entity. It unites a
concept and a sound image and thus has two sides - the content and expression sides: concept and sound form.
8. Grammatical categories of communication.
Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of that have the meanings have the same form (e.g.
singular::plural). Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the
one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality. It follows that
we may define grammatical categories as references of the corresponding. obiective categories. For example,
the objective category of time finds its representation in the grammatical category of tense, the
objective category of quantity finds its representation in the grammatical category of number. Those
grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are called referential grammatical
categories. They are called significational categories. To this type belong the categories of mood and
degree. Speaking about the grammatical category of mood we can say that it has modality as its conceptual
correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it does not refer to anything in the objective reality - it expresses
the speaker's attitude to what he says. The relation between two grammatical forms differing in meaning and
external signs is called opposition -book::books (unmarked member/marked member). All grammatical
categories find their realization through oppositions, e.g. the grammatical category of number is realized
through the opposition singular::plural.
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9, 10. Parts of speech. Different approaches.
The parts of speech are classes of words, all' the members of these classes having certain characteristics
in common which distinguish them from the members of other problem of word classification into parts
of speech still remains one of the most controversial problems in modern linguistics. The artitude of
grammarians with regard to parts of speech and the basis of their classification varied a good deal at
different times. Only in English grammarians have been vacillating between 3 and. 13 parts of speech. There
are four approaches to the problem:
Classical (logical-inflectional)
Functional
Distributional
Complex,
The classical of speech theory is.based on Latin grammar. According, to the Latin classification of the parts
of speech all words were divided dichotomically into declinable and indeclinable parts of speech.
declinable words, included nouns, pronouns, verbs and participles, indeclinable words - adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Based on the the principle of declinability/indeclmability is not
relevant for analytical languages. Functional - To/nominative parts of speech belonged noun-words (noun,
noun-pronoun, noun-numeral, infinitive, gerund), adjective-words (adjective, adjective-pronoun, adjectivenumeral, participles), verb (finite verb, verbals - gerund, infinitive, participles), while adverb, preposition,
conjunction and interjection belonged to the group of articles. A Distributional approach to the parts to the
parts of speech classification can be illustrated bythe classification introduced by Charles Fries. He
wanted to avoid the traditional terminology and establish a classification of words based on the ability
of words to combine with other words of different types. At the same time, the lexical meaning of words
was not taken into account. In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated according to three,
criteria: semantic, formal and functional. This approach may be defined as complex. The semantic
criterion presupposes the grammatical meaning of the whole class of words (general grammatical meaning).
The formal criterion reveals paradigmatic properties: relevant grammatical categories, the form of the words,
their specific inflectional and derivational features. Thus, when characterizing any part of speech we
are to describe: a) its semantics; b) its morphological features; c) its syntactic peculiarities. The linguistic
evidence drawn from our grammatical study makes it possible to divide all the words of the language into:
those denoting things, objects, notiona, qualities, etc. - words with the corresponding references the objective
reality. – notional words those having no references of their own in the objective reality; most of them are used
only as grammatical means to form up and frame utterances - function
11. Noun as a part of speech
A noun, or noun substantive, is a part of speech (a word or phrase) which can co-occur with (in) definite articles
and attributive adjectives, and function as the head of a noun phrase.
The word "noun" derives from the Latin nomen meaning "name", and a traditional definition of nouns is that
they are all and only those expressions that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality or idea.
They serve as the subject or object of a verb, and the object of a preposition. That definition has been criticized
by contemporary linguists as being quite uninformative. For example, it appears that verbs like kill or die refer
to events, and so they fall under the definition. Similarly, adjectives like yellow or difficult might be thought to
refer to qualities, and adverbs like outside or upstairs seem to refer to places. But verbs, adjectives and adverbs
are not nouns, so the definition is not particularly helpful in distinguishing nouns from other parts of speech.
Case, number, and gender
In sentences, noun phrases may function in a variety of different ways, the most obvious being as subjects or
objects. For example, in the sentence "John wrote me a letter", "John" is the subject, and "me" and "letter" are
objects (of which "letter" is a noun and "me" a pronoun). These different roles are known as noun cases.
Variant forms of the same noun—such as "he" (subject) and "him" (object)—are called declensions.
The number of a noun indicates how many objects the noun refers to. In the simplest case, number distinguishes
between singular ("man") and plural ("men"). Some languages, like Arabic (and also Saami and Aleut ) also
distinguish dual from plural.
Many languages (though not English) have a concept of noun gender, also known as noun class, whereby every
noun is designated as, for example, masculine or feminine.
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12. Category of number.
English countable nouns have 2 categories of number:
singular
plural
І. The plural form is formed be adding the ending -s, -es, pronounced as /z/, /s/, /iz/.
2. if the noun ends in –y presided by a consonant. –y is changed into –i + -es13. Category of case.
Case indicates the relations of the noun ( or pronoun ) to the other words in the sentence. Nouns denoting living
beings and some nouns denoting lifeless things have two cases:
the common case.
the genitive case.
The genitive case is formed by:
‘s – is used with the singular and plural nouns not ending in –s:
a man’s job, men’s job, a child’s voice, a children’s voice.
b) a simple apostrophe (‘)is used with plural nouns ending in –s:
the students’ hostel, the Smiths’ car.
other names ending I –s can take “ ’s ” or the “ ’ ” alone:
14. The problem of gender.
In linguistics, the term gender refers to various forms of expressing biological or sociological gender by
inflecting words. For example, in the words actor and actress the suffix -or denotes "male person" (masculine),
and the suffix -ress denotes "female person" (feminine). This type of inflection, called lexical gender, is very
rare in English, but quite common in other languages, including most languages in the Indo-European family.
Normally, Modern English does not mark nouns for gender, but it expresses gender in the third person singular
personal pronouns he (male person), she (female person), and it (object, abstraction, or animal), and their other
inflected forms. When gender is expressed on other parts of speech, besides nouns and pronouns, the language
is said to have grammatical gender. Grammatical gender may be partly assigned by convention, so it doesn't
always coincide with natural gender. Furthermore, the gender assigned to animals, inanimate objects and
abstractions is often arbitrary. Gender can refer to the (biological) condition of being male or female, or less
commonly hermaphrodite or neuter, as applied to humans, animals, and plants. In this sense, the term is a
synonym for sex, a word that has undergone a usage shift itself, having become a synonym for sexual
intercourse.
15. Noun determiners. The article.
An article is a word that is put next to a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles
can have various functions:
a definite article (English the) is used before singular and plural nouns that refer to a particular member of a
group. (The cat on the mat is black.)
an indefinite article (English a, an) is used before singular nouns that refer to any member of a group. (A cat is
a mammal).
a partitive article indicates an indefinite quantity of a mass noun; there is no partitive article in English, though
the words some or any often have that function.
a zero article is the absence of an article (e.g. English indefinite plural), used in some languages in contrast
with the presence of one. Linguists hypothesize the absence as a zero article based on the X-bar theory.
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16, 17, 18, 19. General characteristics of a verb.
Verb is a part of speech that denotes an action,
It has the following grammatical categories:
- person - aspect
- number - voice
- tense - mood
These categories may be expressed by means of affixes, innaflexions (change of the route vowel) and by form
words.
According to the functional verbs perform in the sentence; they can form finite(особові) and non-finite forms.
The finite form can be used as the predicate of the sentence.
The non-finite can’t be used as the predicate of the sentence, they are called “verbals” (Participle I, II,
Infinitive, Gerund).
According to the morphological structure verbs can be divided into:
- simple
- derivative (rewrite, undo)
- compound (day-dream, brain-beat)
- composite (give up, sit down).
3. The basic forms of the verb are:
- the infinitive
- the past indefinite
- the participle II
speak – spoke – spoken.
According to the syntactical function verbs are divided into:
notional verbs – always have a lexical meaning of their own and have an independent syntactical function in the
sentence (may be used as a simple predicate).
auxiliary verbs – have only grammatical function used in analytical form.link verbs – which have lost their
lexical meaning to some extend and are used in compound nominal predicate.
6.A verb can be
- transitive which can take:
a) a direct object
They express an action which passes on to a thing or object directly.
b)direct and indirect object.
c) prepositional object
intransitive verbs can’t take a direct object.
7. Semantically all verbs can be divided into:
- terminative
- non-terminative
a) Terminative verbs amply a limit beyond which an action can’t continue. (to break).
b) Non-terminative denote an action which don’t amply any limit. (to love, to live, to posses).
c) Verbs of double lexical character/aspect. These verbs in certain context have a terminative meaning, and in
other – a derivative.
21. The category of tence.
Grammatical tense is a way languages express the time at which an event described by a sentence occurs. In
English, this is a property of a verb form, and expresses only time-related information. Tense, along with mood,
voice and person, are three ways in which verb forms are frequently characterized, in languages where those
categories apply. There are languages (mostly isolating languages, like Chinese) where tense is not expressed
anywhere in the verb or any auxiliaries, but only as adverbs of time, when needed for comprehension; and there
are also languages (such as Russian) where tense is not deemed very important and emphasis is instead placed
on aspect. The exact number of tenses in a language is often a matter of some debate, since many languages
include the state of certainty of the information, the frequency of the event, whether it is ongoing or finished,
and even whether the information was directly experienced or gleaned from hearsay, as moods or tenses of a
verb. Some grammarians consider these to be separate tenses, and some do not.
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22. Perfect.
The perfect aspect is a grammatical aspect, which refers to a state resulting from a previous action (also
described as a previous action with relevance to a particular time, or a previous action viewed from the
perspective of a later time).
For example, "I have gone to the cinema" implies both that a previous action happened ("I went to the cinema")
and that a current state resulted ("I am now in the cinema"). This differs from the simple "I went to the cinema",
which implies only that an action happened, with no relevance to the present. The form "I have gone" is
referred to as a present perfect, meaning present tense, perfect aspect. (It is considered present tense, not past
tense, since the resulting state is in the present.)
23. Aspect.
In linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a verb defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof) in the described
event or state. For example, in English the difference between I swim and I am swimming is a difference of
aspect.
Aspect, as discussed here, is a formal property of a language. Some languages distinguish a large number of
formal aspects (see the list below), while others distinguish none at all. Even languages that do not mark aspect
formally, however, can convey such distinctions, if important, by the use of adverbs, phrases, serial verb
constructions or other means.
Present Simple (not progressive/continuous, not perfect; simple): "I eat"
Present Progressive (progressive, not perfect): "I am eating"
Present Perfect (not progressive, perfect): "I have eaten"
Present Perfect Progressive (progressive, perfect): "I have been eating"
...and for the past tense:
Past Simple (not progressive/continuous, not perfect; simple): "I ate"
Past Progressive (progressive, not perfect): "I was eating"
Past Perfect (not progressive, perfect): "I had eaten"
Past Perfect Progressive (progressive, perfect): "I had been eating"
Another aspect that does survive in English, but that is no longer productive, is the frequentative, which
conveys the sense of continuously repeated action; while prominent in Latin, it is omitted from most
discussions of English grammar, as it suggests itself only by Scandinavian suffixes no longer heard
independently from the words to which they're affixed (e.g., "blabber" for "blab", "chatter" for chat", "dribble"
for "drip", "crackle" for "crack", etc.).
24. Voice.
In grammar, voice is the relationship between the action or state expressed by a verb, and its arguments
(subject, object, etc.). When the subject is the agent or actor of the verb, the verb is said to be in the active
voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the passive voice.
For example,
The cat ate the mouse
is active, but
The mouse was eaten by the cat
is passive.
In a transformation from an active voice sentence to an equivalent passive voice construction, the subject and
the direct object switch places. The direct object is promoted to subject, and the subject is demoted to an
optional complement. In the above examples, the mouse is the direct object in the active voice version, the
subject in the passive version. The subject of the active voice version, the cat, becomes part of a prepositional
phrase in the passive version of the sentence, and could be left out entirely. In the English language, the passive
voice is periphrastic; that is, it is not a single word form, but rather a construction making use of other word
forms. Specifically, it is made up of a form of the auxiliary verb to be and a past participle of the main verb. In
other languages, such as Latin, the passive voice is simply marked on the verb by inflection: the passive voice
uses different verb endings than the active voice.
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25. Mood.
In linguistics, many grammars have the concept of grammatical mood, which describes the relationship of a
verb with reality and intent. Many languages express distinctions of mood through morphology, by changing
(inflecting) the form of the verb.
Grammatical mood is not the same thing as grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although these concepts
are conflated to some degree in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European
languages, insofar as the same word patterns are used to express more than one of these concepts at the same
time.1 Admirative mood 2 Cohortative mood 3 Conditional mood 4 Dubitative mood 5 Energetic mood 6
Eventive mood 7 Generic mood 8 Hypothetical mood 9 Imperative mood 10 Indicative mood 11 Declarative
mood 12 Interrogative mood 13 Jussive mood 14 Negative mood 15 Optative mood 16 Potential mood 17
Presumptive mood 18 Subjunctive mood
26. Adjectives and adverbs.
The adjective is a part of speech denoting quality of substance:
size ( big, enormous )
color ( yellow, white )
age ( young, old )
material ( wooden, metal )
physiological state ( angry, happy).
The main syntactical functions of an adjective are those of an attribute and a predicative:
Morphological characteristics of an adjective are divided into:
- simple
- derivative→ productive → unproductive.
- compound
3. Classification of adjective.
By meaning and grammatical characteristics they are divided into two groups:
qualitative
realative.
Qualitative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly not threw it’s relation to another substance as:
size, shape, color, physical and mental quality.
Realative adjectives denote qualities of a substance directly threw it’s relation to:
material ( woolen, silk)
place ( Italian, ancient)
time ( monthly, weekly)
the number of them is limited in English.
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Syntax.
1. Syntax as a part of grammar.
Syntax, originating from the Greek words συν (syn, meaning "co-" or "together") and τάξις (táxis, meaning
"sequence, order, arrangement"), can in linguistics be described as the study of the rules, or "patterned
relations" that govern the way the words in a sentence come together. It concerns how different words (which,
going back to Dionysios Thrax, are categorized as nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.) are combined into clauses,
which, in turn, are combined into sentences. Syntax attempts to systematize descriptive grammar, and is
unconcerned with prescriptive grammar (see Prescription and description).
There exist innumerable theories of formal syntax — theories that have in time risen or fallen in influence.
Most theories of syntax at least share two commonalities: First, they hierarchically group subunits into
constituent units (phrases). Second, they provide some system of rules to explain patterns of
acceptability/grammaticality and unacceptability/ungrammaticality. Most formal theories of syntax offer
explanations of the systematic relationships between syntactic form and semantic meaning.
There are various theories as to how best to make grammars such that by systematic application of the rules,
one can arrive at every phrase marker in a language (and hence every sentence in the language).
A modern approach to combining accurate descriptions of the grammatical patterns of language with their
function in context is that of systemic functional grammar, an approach originally developed by Michael A.K.
Halliday in the 1960s and now pursued actively in all continents. Systemic-functional grammar is related both
to feature-based approaches such as Head-driven phrase structure grammar and to the older functional traditions
of European schools of linguistics such as British Contextualism and the Prague School.
A syntactic category is either a phrasal category, such as noun phrase or verb phrase, which can be
decomposed into smaller syntactic categories, or a lexical category, such as noun or verb, which cannot be
further decomposed.
In terms of phrase structure rules, phrasal categories can occur to the left side of the arrow while lexical
categories cannot.
The lexical categories are traditionally called the parts of speech. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and so
on.
2. Syntactic notions.
The relation between a unit and other units (inner relations between units). No unit can be used
independently; it serves as an element in the system of other units. This kind of meaning is called syntactic.
Formal relation of units to one another is studied by syntactics (or syntax). Only inner (syntactic) relations
between linguistic units served the basis for linguistic analysis while the reference of words to the objective
reality and language users were actually not considered
3. Coordinations, Parataxis.
In grammar, coordination refers to the linking of syntactically equal elements. Coordinating conjunctions are
often, though not always, used in coordination. Coordinations can generally be classified as syndetic,
asyndetic, or polysyndetic. Coordination may be compared with subordination
Parataxis (from Greek for 'act of placing side by side'; fr. para, beside + tassein, to arrange; contrasted to
syntaxis) is a literary technique, in writing or speaking, that favors short, simple sentences, often without the
use of conjunctions. It is a style much favoured by historians and writers of crime fiction.
4. Hypotaxis.
Hypotaxis [fr. Gk. subjection, fr. hypotassein to arrange under] : syntactic subordination (as by a conjunction).
So in grammar, the syntactic subordination of one clause or construction to another. Antonym: parataxis
11. Simple sentence.
A simple sentence contains one subject and one verb. The subject (sometimes called the object) comes before
the verb. The verb comes after the subject to describe what the subject is doing or has done.
The singer bowed. Noun phrase / Subject = The singer Verb phrase / Verb = bowed
The baby cried. Noun phrase / Subject = The baby Verb phrase / Verb = cried
The girl ran. Noun phrase / Subject = The girl Verb phrase / Verb = ran
In traditional grammar the noun phrase is called the subject.
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16. The utterance
Speech can be described as an act of producing voice through the use of the vocal cords and vocal apparatus or
other means, such as sign language, to create linguistic acts in the form of language that communicate
information from an initiator to a recipient. In more colloquial terms, speech can be described in several
different ways:
 A linguistic act designed to convey information.
 Various types of linguistic acts where the audience consists of more than one individual, including
public speaking, oration, and quotation.
 The physical act of speaking, primarily through the use of vocal cords to produce voice. See phonology
and linguistics for more detailed information on the physical act of speaking.
However, speech can also take place inside one's head, known as intrapersonal communication, for
example, when one thinks or utters sounds of approval or disapproval. At a deeper level, one could even
consider subconscious processes, including dreams where aspects of oneself communicate with each other
(see Sigmund Freud), as part of intrapersonal communication, even though most human beings do not seem
to have direct access to such communication.
17. Complex sentence.
In syntax, a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent clause (subordinating clause) is
referred to as a complex sentence. The dependent clause is often introduced by a subordinate conjunction
such as "which", "while" or "because".Similar to a compound sentence, Two dependent clauses and one
independent, a complex sentence with a sub-clause functioning as a subject. A clefted complex sentence
with a sub-clause indicating what the dummy pronoun "It" refers to. A complex sentence with a sub-clause
functioning as subject complement. "Be" is a copula verb; it links the sub-clause to the subject. I ate the
meal is an independent clause and which you cooked is relative clause. A sentence with a relative clause, a
clause that has no function but describes its noun phrase, does not fufill the dependent clause requirement of
a complex sentence. A sentence is complex only when it contains a subordinate clause which fulfills a
syntactic function within the sentence. This is a complex-compound sentence with two independent clauses.
18. Clause.
In grammar, a clause is a group of words consisting of a subject and a predicate, although, in non-finite clauses,
the subject is often not explicitly given. In null subject languages there may not be a subject, either explicit or
implicit. A clause is either a whole sentence or in effect a sentence-within-a-sentence. Clauses are often
contrasted with phrases, which do not express complete thoughts through combinations of subjects and
predicates. Phrases generally do not contain verbs except as verbals (gerunds, participles, and infinitives).
22. Discourse and text. Coherence and cohesion.
Discourse is a term used in semantics as in discourse analysis. Even though each thinker had personal and
incompatible conceptions of discourse, they remain two important figures in this field; Habermas trying to find
the transcendent rules upon which speakers could agree on a groundworks consensus, while Foucault was
developing a battle-type of discourse which opposed the classic marxist definition of ideology as part of the
superstructure). In language, text is a broad term for something that contains words to express something. In
linguistics a text is a communicative act, fulfilling the seven constitutive and the three regulative principles of
textuality. Both speech and written language, or language in other media can be seen as a text within linguistics.
In literary theory a text is the object being studied, whether it be a novel, a poem, a film, an advertisement, or
anything else with a semiotic component. The broad use of the term derives from the rise of semiotics in the
1960s and was solidified by the later cultural studies of the 1980s, which brought a corresponding broadening
of what it was one could talk about when talking about literature; see also discourse.Coherence in linguistics is
what makes a text semantically meaningful.Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations
which link various parts of a text. These relations or ties organize and, to some extent, create a text, for
instance, by requiring the reader to interpret words and expressions by reference to other words and expressions
in the surrounding sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion is a surface relation and it connects together the actual
words and expressions that we can see or hear.
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24, 25 Discourse analisys.
In semantics, discourses are linguistic units composed of several sentences — in other words, conversations,
arguments or speeches. The study of discourses, or of language used by members of a speech community, is
known as discourse analysis. It looks at both language form and function, and includes the study of both spoken
interaction and written texts. It is a cross-disciplinary field, originally developing from sociolinguistics,
anthropology, sociology and social psychology.
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