The Rhetorical Triangle
Aristotle taught that a speaker's ability to persuade is based on how well (s)he appeals to
an audience in three different areas: ethos (ethical appeals), pathos (emotional appeals),
and logos (logical appeals). These areas form something later rhetoricians called the
Rhetorical Triangle.
We could also illustrate the concept this way:
Three important elements come into play when creating any kind of argument. These are
illustrated by the rhetorical triangle:
Logos (Rational or Logical Appeals): appeal to logical reasoning ability of the audience
through use of facts, case studies, statistics, experiments, logical reasoning, analogies,
anecdotes, authority voices, etc. Are writer’s claims reasonable? Does the writer provide
sufficient evidence to support those claims? Does the speaker make logical conclusions?
Does (s)he talk about counter-arguments, other opinions or points of view? Other
questions to consider: What is being argued here or what is the author’s thesis? What
points does he offer to support this idea? Has he presented arguments that seem logical or
does he seem to be jumping to conclusions? What positive and negative connotations do
you derive from writing that relies exclusively on logical appeals?
Pathos (Emotional Appeals): appeal to beliefs/feelings of the audience. An appeal of
pathos can move an audience to anger or tears as a means of persuasion. Pathos appeals
may attempt to invoke particular emotions such as fear, envy, patriotism, lust, etc. Or, an
appeal of pathos may stem from shared values between the author and the audience or
from an argument that caters to an audience’s beliefs. Perhaps a writer will offer an
anecdote to illustrate suffering or appeal to readers as parents concerned for their
children. Other questions to consider: Does the writer appeal to your emotions? Is the
emotional appeal effective or overwhelming?
Ethos (Ethical Appeals): appeal based on the character, persona, and/or position of the
speaker. These kinds of appeals give the audience a sense of the author as an authority.
Such an appeal may highlight the author’s trustworthiness, credibility, reliability, expert
testimony, reliable sources, fairness, celebrity, etc. Other questions to consider: Does
the speaker seem knowledgeable, reasonable, and trustworthy? Does the speaker treat
opponents who might disagree with fairness and respect, or does the speaker take cheap
shots at them? Does (s)he try to establish common ground with the reader?
Note that this triangle is essentially equilateral. Why? Again, the equal sides and angles
illustrate the concept that each appeal is as important as the others. It also suggests that a
BALANCE of the three is important. Too much of one is likely to produce an argument
that readers will either find unconvincing or that will cause them to stop reading.
Finally, note how each of the areas potentially affects the others. An illogical argument
may move us emotionally, but only in the sense that it makes us angry at the author for
wasting our time. An overwhelming emotional argument may make us feel that the
author is relying exclusively on emotions rather than offering solid reasoning. Finally, if
an argument contains only facts and figures and no emotional appeals, we may simply get
bored. All these defects may, in turn, affect the author’s ethical appeal: how can we trust
a writer who appeals only to our emotions? What common ground do we have with a
writer who doesn't appeal to our emotions at all?
Using the Rhetorical Triangle to Analyze Media Messages
The media – advertisements, and often TV shows and movies, are visual arguments.
They attempt to persuade readers to buy a product/viewpoint using the same kinds of
appeals authors use when constructing a written argument. So, when you analyze a piece
of media, it is important to remember the rhetorical triangle. Ask yourself: Who is the
author? How is the author trying to represent himself/herself? What is the message and
how is that message coming across? Is the argument logical/emotional? Who are the
intended receivers of the message? Is the argument having its desired effect on those
receivers?
Specific Questions to Consider (No, not necessarily all at once…):
The Author
Who is the author? Is it a business firm trying to sell you a product or a service, a public
organization seeking to inform you about its policies, a politician trying to win your
allegiance, an interest group or media member trying to change your opinion about an
issue?
What is the ethos (general credibility) of the author?
What is the ad trying to accomplish? In other words, what is the sender’s “problem?”
There is often some kind of communication problem behind an ad or campaign. For
example, the authors may seek more awareness from the receiver or more legitimacy for
themselves. Are you aware of any problems the sender (company) may be having in that
specific industry, market, or area of activity?
The Message
What is the simple message of the media? What product is the ad trying to sell? What is
the subject of the movie/TV show? What is the true message of the media? Are there any
hidden meanings the receiver is intended to observe? Do any connotations come to mind
when you view the media? What ideologies or values does the piece of media invoke? In
other words, what images, discourses, concepts, myths, etc. of the culture do the media
use when making an appeal? How is the message presented? In an advertisement, what is
the layout? What images, text appear, etc.? If it is a TV show or movie, who are the
characters? What is the setting, etc? How do the media connect concrete features with
abstract values? In other words, how does the presentation of the message communicate
deeper/abstract meanings (our values/norms) in addition to the simpler meaning (what is
being sold)?
The Receiver
Who is the targeted audience? Are the media having the desired effect on the targeted
audience? Are the logical/emotional/ethical appeals working? Is the audience being
persuaded to buy what the media/advertisers are selling? If yes, why? If not, why not? If
the desired message comes across effectively, might there be any consequences for the
receivers or for society as a whole?
In-Class Activity
Break students into small groups of 3 or 4, and ask each group to elect a recorder and a
presenter.
Teacher comes prepared with several ads from magazines, newspapers, etc. for students
to analyze.
Hand out one advertisement to each group, and ask them to consider the questions above
regarding the author, message, and receiver of their chosen ad. They should also
consider what appeals the advertisers are using to sell their product.
The recorder should note the most important points discussed by the group.
The presenter should present the group’s ideas to the class.