Figure 14.1 Composite image, including an image of dinosaur skeleton, cave drawings
of various hoofed animals in the Sahara and Saudi Arabia. (e.g. Fig 8.2, page 208 in
Global Physical Climatology, by D. Hartmann), and a map of vegetation?.
Figure 14.2 A plot of the number of times the annual average temperature of Madison,
WI fell within a given temperature interval. This type of figure is called a histogram, and
provides a useful statistical description of the data. Listed are the mean of all the values,
the minimum and maximum annual average temperature, and the standard deviation.
8
Precipitation (inches)
7
Portland, Oregon, (9.1 m 45.5N 124W)
Montreal Canada (57m, 45.5N, 73.5W)
6
5
Total Precipitation:
Portland 39.9 in
Montreal, 40.8 in
4
3
2
1
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Figure 14.3 Monthly average precipitation for Portland Oregon, USA and Montreal
Canada.
Figure 14.4 Image of different scales of climate (To Come)
Figure 14.4 Snow fences are placed to stop the movement of snow drifts. The
microclimate of the region is modified by depositing more snow in the downward
direction of the snow fence then in the up-wind direction. The prevailing wind direction
is from the left of the fence. (Maybe we can also show a line graph of wind blowing
through a snow fence, losing speed and snow being deposited on the downwind side
of the fence.)
80
Temperature (F)
70
Land
Lake
60
50
40
30
20
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 14.5 The average land temperature versus the average surface lake temperature
in the Southern Lake Michigan region.
Figure 14.6 Vegetation modifies the air above. The temperature above the dunes on
this bright day are higher than that of the surrounding vegetation.
Figure 14.7 Concentration of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 determined from analysis of
air bubble chemistry from an ice core cut from Vostk, Antarctica. Variations in these
gases are well correlated with changes in temperature. (See figure 3, page 204 of the
Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather -- from Lorius, C. et al "The Ice-core record:
Climate sensitivity and future Greenhouse Warming", Nature 347, 1990, 139-145.
Maybe turn this figure sideway and add another that represents depth into the ice
core.).
Figure 14.8 A dust storm emanating from the Sahara as seen from a satellite. These
dust storms can carry Saharan soil as far as South America, North America, and even
Greenland.
Figure 14.9 Layers of soil deposited on the ocean floor provide evidence of geological
change. (need a photograph).
Figure 14.10 Variations in the isotope ratio of 18O to 16O measured from fossil shells
over the last 800,000 years. Positive values indicate warmer periods. Periods as warm as
today occur infrequently. Notice that approximately every 100 thousand years a warm
period exists.
Figure 14.11 Measuring and counting tree rings can provide clues into past climates.
The graph shows a plot of annual precipitation in Iowa derived from analysis of treerings. Notice the dry periods in the decades around 1700, 1740, 1820, 1890 and 1930.
(figure from Duvick and Blasing 1981, delete phrase 10-year running mean cm)
Also need a photo of 'tree rings'.)
.
Figure 14.12 The above a map shows the continents as they appear today. In the past
(see below), the continents fit together to form a larger landmass. The shapes of the
continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. In addition to the jigsaw pieces locking
together, the patterns on the surface must match. Similarly, patterns on the Earth's surface
must match to prove that the continents were truly combined. The figure above
demonstrates how the scars left by glaciers on the continents millions of years ago appear
today and then. (See also page80, figure 4.1 of Earth Science Today by Murphy and
Nance or see Ahrens Hard cover, page 512, Fig 19.7)
Figure 14.13 The trilobite flourished during the Paleozoic era, with over 10,000
species, but they were extinct by the end of the era. The exact cause of a mass extinction
during the end of the period is unknown, but the extinction is likely attributed to a shift in
climate.
Figure 14.14 A collision with a large meteor is believed to have caused a climate
change that resulted in the extinction of 75% of the species at the end of the Mesozoic
Era. The top map indicates the landmass and the point of contact at the time of the
collision. The outlines of the Chixulub crater are seen today in gravity and magnetic field
data of the region. (We want to combine these three images, the to is give the big
picture, then zoom in, as the middle figure does and then show the crater impact
zoom in.)
Figure 14.15 Evidence of glaciers are found in the landscape. A) Moraines formed at
the edge of glaciers, B) Large boulders which are transported by glaciers and C) scratch
marks in bedrock reveal the movement of continental glaciers. (See photos in geology
books, I think got this one from Earth Sciences, published by Wadsworth.)
Figure 14.16, The extent of the ice sheets over North America during the Pleistocene.
The arrows indicate the direction of advance of the glacier.
Figure 14.17 The average temperature changes over the last 18,000 years. A detailed
look of the period between 800-2000 AD is also shown.
Figure 14.18 The change of sea level over the past 18 thousand years. Decreases in the
amount of land ice over the last 18,000 years have caused the sea level height to increase
approximately 120 meters. (Modify figure to translate numbers from left (top) to
right (bottom) axes. )
Figure 14.19 The average height above sea level of the snow line in Norway during
approximately the last 12,000 years. An increase in the height above sea level of the
snow line indicates a warm period. The Climatic optimum, a warm period in human
history, has a high snow line.
Tropical (A)
Polar (E) Severe Mid-latitude (D) Mild Mid-latitude (C)
Dfc
Dwc
EF
ET
Dfb
Dwb
Dfa
Dwa
Cfa
Cfw
Dfd
Dwd
Af
Am
Aw
Cfc Cfb
Csb Csa
Af
Am
Aw
No dry season
Short dry season
Winter dry season
BWh
BSh
BWk
BSk
Low latitude dry
Low latitdue semi-dry
Mid-latitude dry
Mid-latitude semi-dry
Csa
Csb
Cfa
Cwa
Cfb
Cfc
Dry, hot summer
Dry, warm summer
Hot summer, no dry season
Hot summer, brief winter dry season
Mild, no dry season, warm summer
Mild, no dry season, cool summer
Dfa
Dfb
Dfc
Dfd
Dwa
Dwb
Dwc
Dwd
Severe winter, no dry season, hot summer
Severe winter, no dry season, warm summer
Severe winter, no dry season, cool summer
Extremely severe winter, no dry season, cool summer
Severe winter, winter dry season, hot summer
Severe winter, winter dry season, warm summer
Severe winter, winter dry season, cool summer
Extremely severe winter, winter dry season, cool summer
Dry (B)
BSk
BWk
BSh
BWh
Figure 14.20 Overview of the main climatic groups with respect to temperature and
precipitation. In general, temperature increases from left to right and precipitation from
bottom to top of the figure. (Add ET No Summer and EP Perennial ice.)
ET
EF
No summer
Perennial Ice
Figure 14.21 A world map of the Koppen climate classification scheme. (for
example, Figure 15-1, page 414, of new Aguado and Burt)
16
Iquitos, Peru (115 m), 3.65S, 73.3W Af
Asuncion, Paraguay (139), 25S, 57.5W Aw
Manaus, Brazil (44m) 3S 60W, Am
Precipitation (inches)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
85
Iquitos, Peru (115 m), 3.65S, 73.3W Af
Asuncion, Paraguay (139), 25S, 57.5W Aw
Manaus, Brazil (44m) 3S 60W, Am
Temperature (F)
80
75
70
65
60
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 14.22 Temperature and precipitation for three tropical climate regimes. The
altitude, latitude and longitude of each station is given in the legend (Show location of
these cities on a map, like most intro books now have. Also, label the curves Af, Aw
and Am.)
90
85
Dakar Senegal (40 m) 14.5N 17.5E, BSh
Cairo, Egypt (116 m) 30N 31.5E BWh
Temperature (F)
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
11
10
Dakar Senegal (40 m) 14.5N 17.5E, BSh
Cairo, Egypt (116 m) 30N 31.5E BWh
Precipitation (inches)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Figure 14.23 Example temperature and precipitation for BSh and BWh climates
regimes. (Show location of these cities on a map. Label curves BSh, Bwh.)
90
San Diego, USA (4 m) 33N 117W, BSk
Santa Cruz, Argentina, BWk
Temperature (F)
80
70
60
50
40
30
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
3
Precipitation (inches)
2.5
San Diego, USA (4 m) 33N 117W, BSk
Santa Cruz, Argentina, BWk
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 14.24 Temperature and precipitation for dry, cold climates regimes of high
latitude. December and January are summer months in the Southern Hemisphere. (Show
location of these cities on a map. Label curves BSk and BWk.)
Marine west coast
70
65
Bergen Norway (44m) 60.5N 5.5E Cfb
Reykjavik, Iceland (28m) 64N 22W Cfc
Temperature (F)
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Marine west coast
10
9
Precipitation (inches)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Bergen Norway (44m) 60.5N 5.5E Cfb
Reykjavik, Iceland (28m) 64N 22W Cfc
1
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 14.25 Marine west coast climates have mild temperatures throughout the year
with no dry season. Cfb have warm summers and Cfc cool summers. This climate
regime does not have to lie on the west coast of a continent, as the name would imply.
(Show location of these cities on a map. Label curves Cfb and Cfc.)
Humid Subtropical
90
New Orleans, LA USA (2.7m) 30N 90W, Cfa
Hong Kong (33m) 22N 114E Cwa
85
Temperature (F)
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Humid Subtropical
18
New Orleans, LA USA (2.7m) 30N 90W, Cfa
Hong Kong (33m) 22N 114E Cwa
Precipitation (inches)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 14.26 Humid subtropical climates are hot and wet. The Cwa regime has a drier
winter than summer while the Cfa is wet all year. (Show location of these cities on a
map. Label curves Cfa and Cwa.)
Mediterranean
80
75
Temperature (F)
70
65
60
55
50
45
Lisbon Portugal, (77m) 38.5N 9W Csa
Santiago, Chile (520m) 33.5S 71W Csb
40
35
30
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Mediterranean
5
Lisbon Portugal, (77m) 38.5N 9W Csa
Santiago, Chile (520m) 33.5S 71W Csb
4.5
Precipitation (inches)
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 14.27 Mediterranean climates are have a distinct dry summer with a maximum
precipitation in winter. June, July and August are winter months in Chile. (Show location
of these cities on a map. Label curves Csa and Csb.)
Humid Continental
70
Temperature (F)
60
50
40
30
20
Vladivostok, Russia (29m) 43N 132E Dwb
Fargo, ND (273m) 47N 97W Dfb
10
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Nov
Dec
Month
Humid Continental
5
4.5
Precipitation (inches)
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
Vladivostok, Russia (29m) 43N 132E Dwb
Fargo, ND (273m) 47N 97W Dfb
0.5
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Month
Figure 14.28 Climographs for Vladivostok, Russia (Dwb) and Fargo, North Dakota,
USA (Dfb). (Include map and combine temperature and precipitation in one figure)
(Show location of these cities on a map. Label cures Dwb and Dfb)
Subarctic
60
Temperature (F)
40
20
0
-20
Fairbanks, AK (133m) 65N 148W Dfc
Verkhoyansk, Siberia (100m) 67.5N 134E Dfd
-40
-60
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Subarctic
3
Fairbanks, AK (133m) 65N 148W Dfc
Verkhoyansk, Siberia (100m) 67.5N 134E Dfd
Precipitation (inches)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 14.29 Fairbanks, Alaska, USA (Dfc) and Verkhoyansk, Siberia (Dfd) are
examples of subarctic climates. Both cities have a very large annual range in temperature
and small amounts of precipitation. (Show location of these cities on a map and label
curves.)
Polar
40
30
Temperature (F)
20
Barrow AK, (9.4m) 71N 157w ET
Eismitte, Greenland, (9941ft) 71N 40W EF
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Polar
Precipitation (inches)
1
Barrow AK, (9.4m) 71N 157w ET
Eismitte, Greenland, (9941ft) 71N 40W EF
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
Figure 14.30 Polar climates have long, cold winters and are typically poleward of
70.(Show location of these cities on a map. Label curves ET and EF)