The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
February 16, 2016
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CHAPTER 6: Etruscan and Roman Art
Study Guide Questions
The Etruscans and the Romans of the Republican Period
Text pages 186- 216
√1.
The so-called compromise theory regarding the origin of the Etruscans
maintains that they came from Asia Minor (Lydia)
and
intermixed with the native populations to form the early Italic culture
known as
Villanovans
.
√2.
The development of the Etruscan art was strongly influenced by the Greek
colonization of Italy in the
8th
and
7th
centuries BC.
√3.
Four important Etruscan settlements were located at
a.
Tarquinia (ancient Tarquinii)
b.
Cerveteri (ancient Caere)
c.
Veii
d.
Perugia (ancient Perusia)
e.
Orvieto (ancient Volsinii)
These cities never united to form a state.
The cities coexisted, any semblance of unity based on common linguistic ties and religious
beliefs and practices.
This lack of political cohesion made them vulnerable of to their Roman aggressors. No
Etruscan city came to the aid of another while under siege of the Romans.
√4.
Our knowledge of early Etruscan houses is principally derived from
a.
clay models that served as cinerary urns
b.
√5.
tomb chambers in which domestic interiors were emulated.
What is an atrium?
A high, square or rectangular central hall that was lighted through a large opening in
the roof and around which the other rooms were arranged symmetrically.
The atrium was the focus of family life and the shrine for the lares and penates, the
household gods
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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√6.
Who was Vitruvius?
Roman authority on architecture (See p 220)
√7.
List five architectural characteristics of Etruscan temples that distinguish
them from Greek temples.
a.
Rests on a high base (podium) with steps at one end only
b.
c.
d.
e.
Constructed mostly of wood and sundried brick in a post - and- lintel system
and had a heavy wooden superstructure richly decorated with brightly painted
terra-cotta reliefs.
Emphasis on a highly ornate facade, with relatively spare treatment of the sides
and rear, concentrated attention on the entrance porch.
Different axial arrangementBehind the sunlit porch, the shrine was divided into three Cellae of equal size
(dark cavelike space).
Greek Temple intended to be seen as a sculptural mass from the outside and
from all directions.
Etruscan functioned primarily as a confined interior space for the cult god. It
was a place of shelter, protected by the wide overhang of its roof.
√8.
In what way was the Etruscan's rise and fall from power reflected in the
decoration of their tombs
Rich array of wall paintings and painted reliefs
Recount their zestful lives, their banquets, and their dances (which in their suppleness and
verve seem partly Ionian and partly barbarian).
They tell us of their athletic contests and of their wars.
Their rise and fall from power is reflected in a gradual change from optimism to
pessimism and in a choice of ever more morbid and bloodthirsty subjects as
their political fortunes declined..
√9.
Define the following terms:
necropolis- (neh-KROP-o-lis)
A large burial area; literally , a city of the dead. Hundreds of tombs
organized along a network of streets.
Etruscan cemeteries were at some distance from their cities.
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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tufa
primarily strongly compressed volcanic ash, easily excavated and hardens
to a concretelike consistency on exposure to the atmosphere. It can be
cut into durable building blocks that require no firing.
Used extensively by the Etruscans and Romans, and a minor tufa-brick
industry still flourishes in Italy today.
tumulus
a round structure containing one or more subterranean tomb chambers
and covered by a large mound of earth . This was the preferred tomb type
in Cerveteri ( ancient Caere).
In terms of its domical shape, it seems to carry on an ancient
Mediterranean tradition.
The majority of tomb interiors however, including those of the tumuli, are
rectangular and imitate the rooms of domestic architecture.
canopic urn
cinerary urn
acroterium figure - (ak-roh-TEE-ri-um)
In Classical buildings, a figure or ornament usually at the apex of the
pediment.
√10.
One subject commonly painted in early Etruscan tomb interiors was
sometimes from Greek legend but more concerned with scenes of banquet and revel.
√11.
List three stylistic characteristics of the Apollo from Veii (G6-8) that
distinguish it as Etruscan.
Only superficial use of the Greek Archaic elements of the closed contour, the grimacing
mask, the frontality.
The awkward, lurching vigor = forceful example of Etruscan clay- modeling techniques.
Overpowering physical presence reflects small concern for the Greek preoccupation
with the harmonious proportions or idealized humanity.
Ionian elaboration of drapery lines bespeaks the eastern component in Etruscan art, but
the animal force, the huge swelling contours, and the plunging motion are certainly not
Ionian and show little mainland Greek influence
Peculiarly Etruscan strength, energy, and excitement.
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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Hair is long and patterned, features are sharp, eyes bulge slightly, and the lips are curved in
the typical archaic smile (G6-8). The zig zag pleats of the Apollo's robe are pressed flat in
typical archaic fashion.
√12.
What were the favorite materials of Etruscan sculptors?
clay and bronze
√13.
Why is the Etruscan She-Wolf of the Capitol (G6-10) so famous?
somewhat due to her antiquity, somewhat due to own magnificence but
primarily because for centuries she has been the totem of the city of Rome.
Ancient legend tells us that the founding heroes of Rome, Romulus and Remus, were
abandoned as infants and suckled by a she-wolf.
The cult of Romulus and Remus was as old as the 4th c BC, and we know that a statue of the
she-wolf was dedicated on the capitoline Hill in Rome in 296 BC
The suckling infants were cast in the Renaissance)
We do not know that this one is the original but we do know of its Etruscan origin.
√14.
What is a chimera?
The chimera is a masterful monster that radiates the vigor so characteristic of the Etruscan
art
In Greek mythology a chimera was usually a free-breathing monster with the head of a lion,
body of a goat, and a serpent for a tail. Here the head and tail fit the pattern but the
body is more lion than goat and the pattern down the backbone seems to be dragon
like.
Compounding the four footed hybrid is the head of a goat protruding from the back with the
left horn caught in the fangs of the snake
√15.
The Etruscans practiced divination. What is it?
Assimilated by the Etruscans from eastern cultures and passed on to Rome.
Diviners (priests) sought to predict the future, which was viewed as a product of arcane
forces personified as gods or demons.. It was assumed that all nature constituted a
universe of affinities. Prediction was based on the state of the viscera (especially the
liver) of sacrificed animals, the flights of locks of birds, and unseasonable and unusual
events..
√16.
Describe the medium and technique used for decorating The Ficoroni Cist
(G6-13)
Bronze
incised scenes
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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√17.
The two cultures whose art most strongly influenced that of Rome were
Etruscan
and
Greece
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18.
In which of the visual arts did Roman artists make major and innovative
contributions?
?portraits?
Architecture and city-planning ( imposing and utilitarian civic structures and plans)
√19.
What major characteristic of Roman Republican portraits differentiates
them from Greek examples?
During Hellenistic - quality of generalization had already given way to a style that way more
particularizing and descriptive
Roman desire for literalness, together with the custom of keeping in the house, always
before one's eyes, the imagines (death masks, usually of wax) of one's ancestors, influenced
to accentuate individual traits still further.
The artist apparently tries neither to idealize the subject nor interpret its personality.
Verism, a kind of super realism, is the artist's objective, and is determined not so much by
esthetic motives as by religious conventions.
There is a need to personalize, to interpret the subject's personality.
20.
Define the following:
pseudoperipteral
engaged columns along the exterior walls of the cella that have no
supporting function, they are purely decorative. Since they only give the
illusion of being freestanding the temple plan is called pseudoperipteral.
bucrania
ox skulls
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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21.
List non - Greek features of the Temple of the "Sibyl" ("Vesta?") at Tivoli
(G6-17)
a.
stands on a podium and is accessible by means of a single flight of stairs that
leads to the entrance to the cella. This arrangement introduces an axial
alignment not found in Greek tholi and serves to lessen the isolation of the
building from its surroundings, diminishing somewhat the independent
sculptural aspect so prized by the Greeks.
b.
c.
d.
22.
columns are monolithic (all of one piece) and not built up in drum sections
embellished not with figure sculpture but with garlands held up by the heads of
oxen - favorite Roman decorative motif- that repeated rhythmically around the
whole frieze
The cella is not built of cut stone as it was in Greece but is built out of
concrete into which blocks of tufa have been set in an ornamental pattern.
How does the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia (G6-18 and G6-19)
manifest the "Roman imperial spirit"?
The great size of the sanctuary reflects the growing taste for colossal Hellenistic
designs during the Late Republican period.
This conversion of an entire hillside into a man-made design in an symbolic and
ostentatious display of power and dominion, and with it the subjection of nature to
man's will and rational order is the first full-blown manifestation of the Roman imperial
spirit
Greek practice of crowning a chosen hill with sacred buildings rather than transforming
an entire hill into architecture.
23.
What enabled the Romans to create an "architecture of space rather than of
sheer mass"?
concrete vaulting
24.
Two ancient cities that were when Mount Vesuvius erupted in AD 79
were Pompeii
and
Herculaneum
25.
What was the basis for the castrum type of a city plan?
based on the layout of a military camp
used in outlying frontier, colonial regions and had major development during the Early
Imperial period
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
February 16, 2016
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
February 16, 2016
26.
27.
The chief functions of the forum of a Roman city were
a.
religious center.
b.
commercial
c.
administrative civic center
Briefly describe the plan of a Roman atrium house; note how it differs
from that of the Greek house at Priene (G5-91)
House faced inward relying on its courts for light and air.
Flush with the sidewalk
Narrow door to a vestibule that led to the atrium. The atrium has a roof opening in the center
of the roof (compluvium) to admit light and air. A depression the floor below (the impluvium)
collects the rainwater..
Rooms were along the sides of the atrium
The end of the atrium extended the full width of the building there were two wings, or alae.
Behind the atrium was the tablinum in which the family archives and statues were kept. The
tablinum could be shut off or as in later Pompeiian houses, could allow for a passage to the
peristyle, a large colonnaded court. This court contained fountains and a garden and private
chambers of family members were arranges around it.
On the outer sides of the house were the shops which opened onto the street.
28.
What, in the author's opinion, may have been the particular Roman
contribution to painting?
with the development of a new concept in painting: the projection of an enveloping
unifying volume of space on a flat surface.
This refinement of abstraction, in which space, filled with air and light, is actually
represented as being just as real as the objects it surrounds and contains, would
complete the long development of representation that began with the silhouettes of
early Egypt and Mesopotamia, or even earlier. At any rate, many now accept the view
that the architectural illusionism of the second style was a Roman development and
that this illusionism was a step in the transition to the spaces depicted in the smaller
landscape panels.
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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29.
For pictorial devices used by Roman painters to suggest recession in
depth are
a.
diminution of figures and objects
atmospheric perspective
30.
b.
hazed and sketchy outlines
c.
shift from local color to blue
d.
blurring of distant contours
Describe the "Arcadian spirit".
The love of country life and the idealizing of nature
31.
List three Greek characteristics that are apparent in the mosaic of The
Battle of Issus (G6-37)
a.
essentially sculpturesque emphasis on the solid forms,
b.
space defined by the forms themselves,
c.
and no attempt to show an enveloping space.
What features seems to be more Roman?
a remarkable taste for fidelity to appearance in the details of action.
High degree of tonal smoothness, minute details of tiny tesserae
All of their mosaic s were seen from about 5 -6 feet .
32.
The technique used to create the Faiyum portrait (G6-40) is known as
encaustic or egg- tempera
What seems most remarkable about the portrait, and how does the artist
achieve these effects?
give us the best idea we have of Hellenistic Greek painting techniques
refined brushwork, soft and delicate modeling, and the subtlest possible reading of a
sensitive subject.
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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33.
Locate the following on the map
Vulci
Tarquinii
Praeneste
Faiyum
Roma
Pompeii
Herculaneum
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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Discussion Questions
1.
Compare the Apollo from Veii (G6-8) with the Apollo from Olympia (G540). Explain how the typical Etruscan features of the former contrast with
the typical Greek features of the latter. How are these influences
combined in the Mars from Todi (G6-9)?
2.
How do the style, color, subject matter, and mood of an Etruscan fresco
(G6-4) compare with those of a Greek vase painting (G5-61)?
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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3.
What did Horace mean by the statement "Conquered Greece led her
proud conqueror captive"?
4.
What different building techniques were used and what esthetic effects
were achieved by the architects of the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia
(G6-18) and the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (G3-25)?
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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5.
What is meant by the term illusionism? How is it used in Roman
painting?
6.
If the Greek genius expressed itself in art, science, and philosophy, in
what fields did the more practical Romans excel? How are these differing
concerns reflected in the surviving monuments of the two cultures?
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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The Early Empire and the Late Empire
Text pages 216 - 51
1.
Who was Octavian Caesar?
Grand nephew and heir of Julius Caesar
First emperor of the Empire
2.
What was the "Pax Romana"?
The peace that began with Augustus. Peace prevailed in Roman world for 150 years
under a long ling of emperors
3.
What is an insula?
Multi-story apartment block
housed nearly 90% of Rome's population.
Maximum height of 5 stories
4.
What was the function of the Pont du Gard?
Aquaduct and bridge
5.
The town plan of Timgad (ancient Thamugadis) is based on the layout of
castrum
. It had the form of a
square
.divided into
equal quarters
. by two main arteries, the of a cardo
and the
decumanus
.
4.
The Roman Colosseum was used for
Staging of lavish spectacles, - battles between animals and gladiators in various
combinations.
The mythical battles betwen man and beast of Mesopotamia became a reality
While the core of the colusseum is concrete, its exterior shell is
constructed in ashlar masonry
. In which dry jointed blocks are
held together by metal cramps and dowels as had been done in Greece .
Why is the Colosseum in danger of collapsing?
xxxxxxxx
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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7.
Describe the Roman arch order
Arch is framed by engaged columns that carry a lintel
In what sequence, from the ground up, were the Greek orders used for
the decoration of multi-storied Roman buildings?
a.
Doric
b.
Ionic
c.
Corinthian
On what estheitc considerations was this sequence based?
Inherent proportions of the orders. Doric appears to be strongest and capable of
supporting the heaviest load.
Visual weight.
8.
What was the function of the Roman basilica?
Public hall designed to accomodate large numbers of various kinds of busines people.
It was the locale of stock exchanges, law courts, business offices,
administrative bureaus, center for civic services.
Describe the plan of the Basilica Ulpia (G6-49):?
Rectangular, with two or more semi-circular semi-circular apses
Entrance on one of the long sides,
Lighted with clerestory windows.
9.
Where and for whom was the Domus Aurea built?
"Golden House" for Nero built in Rome extending from Palatine to Esquiline Hil
How did the architect use concrete in its construction?
Octagonal room, covered by a hemispherical dome, with a round central opening
(oculus). Radiating outward from 5 of the sides are smaller rectangular rooms
covered by barrel and groin vaults
Began to think of architecture as space moulding rather than space limiting.
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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10.
Which revolutionary architectural concept finds its fullest expression in
the Roman Pantenon (G6-56, G6-57, and G6-58)?
Single, unencumbered, interior space of overwhelming scale, a monumental scale
scarcely suggested by the exterior. Architecture of space.
Who is believed to be its designer?
Hadrian
The center of the dome is pierced by a circular opening called the
oculus
.
11.
What functions, other than sanitary ones, did the Roman Baths fufill?
Intellectual and physical recreation of thousands of leisured Romans.
What were Seneca's complaints concerning them?
Wasteful ostentation
12..
Define the following terms:
barrel vaultdeep arch that forms a half cylindrical roof over an oblong space, the edges of the
half cylinder rest directly on the side vaults
centeringtemporary form that is the size and shape of the vault void
groinl vaultbarrel vault intersecting at right angles by another barrel vault; the line of
intersection = the groin. Groin vaults require less buttressing
cofferingdecorative, sunken panels called coffers. Reduces weight and mass od dome
without scrificing structure
13.
Much of the art produced under Augustus was strongly nfluenced by the
art of
Hellenic which existed side by side with work created in the
realistic Republican tradition.
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14.
In what respects do the reliefs from the Ara Pacis Auguste (G6-64 and G665) resemble the Parthenon freize (G5-50)?
Completed and dedicated to commemerate pacification of Spain and Gaul
a.
b.
c.
c
c
draperies, quiet dignity, ordered deployment within a shallow plane of space
How do they differ from it?
a.
b.
c.
15.
Greek disquise historical events in the mthyological. Roman feelingfor
narrative.
procession moves in several files
differences in distances are signified by differences in degree of relief.
Individuals are differentialted carefully
The subjects depictd in the reliefs on the Arch of Titus are
cConquest of Jerusalem at end of Jewish wars AD 66- 70
√16.
a.
Triumph of Titus
b.
Spoils from the Temple in Jerusalem
How do the reliefs on the Column of Trajan (G6-69 and G6-70) differ from
those on the Ara Pacis Auguste (G6-64 and G6-65) and the Arch of Titus
(G6-67 and G6-68)?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Releifs on Column of Trajan scarificed the strong illusionism found on the Ara
Pacis Auguste and Arch of Titus
Desire for completeness of narrative description taht required a great number
of actions be shown in a limited space. Narrative fact rather tahn visual fact
In Ara Pacis Auguste/ Arch of Titus the figures are represented as standing and
moving on the same ground line, at the eye level. of a presumed oberver who
occupies an imagined place on the same line thus all heads on apx same level
Figures on column of Trajan are superimposed ( a differnet device from apx
perspective of illusionism.
relative proportions are often sacrificed:
soldiers as large as wall
calvarymen as large or larger than horse.
In what respects do they seem to forcast the art of the Middle Ages?
Flattening of relief
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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17.
Roman portrait sculpture shows a fluctuation between two
opposite artistic tendencies. What are they?
a.
verism of the Republic
b.
18.
19.
Hellenizing , idealism of the empire
Which emperors, other than Augustus, commissioned art that showed
strong Greek influence?
a.
Hadrian
b.
Antonius Pius
c.
Marcus Aurelius
One of the very few equestrian portraits of a Roman emperor to survive to
the Middle Ages is that of Marcus Aurelius
It appears to owe its survival to?
Christians melted down bronze statues for their bronze, because they were images
fromthe demonic, pagan, world of the caesars. The Christians probably mistook
the subject here to be that of Constantine, the first Christian emperor.
20.
Two factors that contributed to the decline of Roman imperial power in
the 3rd century were
a.
b.
21.
Military anarchy setup and pulled down by army.
Internal unrest
Attack on borders by the new Sassanian line of Persian kings in the East and
German tribes in the north
How does the portrait of Phillip the Arab (G6-79) express the uncertainites
and unrest of his time?
a.
Fear, distrust, and suspicion work the face into a mask of quiet and anxiety
Furrowed brow, deep-set eyes shift sideways,
carved pupils, an innovation that focuses on the psychic state
b.
c.
Short cropped hair, stubbly beard.
Short nervous chisel strokes adapt to nervous mood
Tensions of the face reflected in new use of expression which replaces the
ideal and real
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22.
Who were the major patrons of art during the empire?
Cite works commisisioned by two such patrons
Palace of Diocletian, at Slit, Yugoslvvia
23.
Diocletian built an important fortified palace
at
Split (ancient Spalatum)
in what is now the country of
Yugoslavia
.
What feature of the peristyle court of the palace was to be of great
importance to the development of Medieval architecture?
Entablature arches upward into triangular face of the pediment- broken pediment(Purpose was to emphasize central axis of the design)
Change from the trabeated (post and lintel) architecture of Greco-Roman antiquity (and
earlier) to the arcuated (arch and column) architecture of the Middle Ages.
24.
What might have been the source for the "baroque" character of the socalled Treasury at Petra?
Rock cut structure in modern Jordan
Theatrical scene buildings that backed the stages of Greek and Roman theaters
25.
Where was the Porta Nigra built? Whta was its function?
Trier, (ancient Augusta Trevirorum), West Germany, c 310 AD
Roman city - gate, built not only for den=fensesive purposes but also for the impression
it would make on a visitor, manifesting the might of Imperial Rome.
26.
List five themes common to Late Roman art taht were depicted in the
mosaics of the Piazza Armerina.
a.
the hunt
b.
the games
c.
wild and domestic animals
d.
river and forest life
e.
genre scenes
f.
scenes from mythology
g.
allegoriacl subjects
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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27.
What type of vaulting was used to construct the Basilica of Constantine
(G6-91 and G6-92)?
Coffered barrel vaults
28.
29.
List four characteristics of fourth centuray Roman sculpture that are
illustrated by The Tetrarchs (G6-94).
a.
Trend toward Archaism
b.
Classical features have disappeared
c.
Figures not well proportioned
d.
Drapery schematic, shapeless bodies
e.
Greek and Roman idealism and naturalism terminate
f.
No portrait likeness
g.
Individuality/ personality is now a thing of the past
Why do the authors feel that the Arch of Constantine is a monument to
the decline of Roman creative power?
Figures do not move according to any principle of Classical (naturalistic) movement but
rather with the mechanical repeated stances and geatures of puppets. Details
reduced to an absolute minimum and replaced with formal placement and
repetition of attitude and gesture
30.
Locate the following on the map on Study Guide p 55
Nimes (Nemausus)
Trier (Augusta Trevirorum)
Gallia Germania
Split (Splatatum)
Using a colored pen or pencil, lightly color in the area covered by the
Roman empire in the second century AD
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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Discussion Questions
1.
How did the Romans and the Greeks differ in their conception of
architectural space? Include the Greek Parthenon (G5-44 and G5-45), the
Roman Panthon (G6-56, G6-57, G6-58), the Baths of Caracalla (G6-59, G660, G6-61), and the Piazza Armerina (G6-87) in your discussion. How did
the building techniques used by each determine the types of spaces that
could be constructed?
The arch, vault, dome were structural devices that Romans adopted from earlier
builders.
These forms, combined with engineering knowledge of properties of solids and the
statics of inert masses, Roman builders acquired a flexibility unknown to their
predessors.
In architecture before the Panthenon the form of enclosed spce is determined by the
placement of the solods, which do not so much shape as interupt the space
The solids are so prominent in Egyptian and Mesopotamian architecture that it is only
negatives simply happening between solids. We think of this as an architecture of
mass.
Greek architecture, also primarily concerned with masses and their relationships and
with the shaping of solid units, is designatyed as skeletal or sculptural
architecture.
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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2.
How were both realistic and Greek idealizing characteristics incorporated
in the Ara Pacis Augustae (G6-63, G6-64, G6-65)? What was the purpose
of the work? How did its iconography reflect that purpose?
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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3.
In what ways does the Augustus of Primaporte (G6-62) resemble the Greek
Doryphorus (G5-58)? How do they differ?
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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4.
Dicuss the development of Roman portraits by comparing and contrasting
the heads of a Republican Roman (G6-14), Augustus (G6-72), Vespasian
(G6-74), Hadrian (G6-76), Caracalla (G6-78), Phillip the Arab (G6-79),
Constantine (G6-93), and Maximin Daia (G6-98).
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The Etruscans and Romans of the Republican Period (pp 186-216) Study Questions
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5.
Analyze the stylistic differences between the reliefs from the Arch of
Constantine (G6-96 and G6-97), the Arch of Titus (G6-67 and G6-68), and
the PArthenon (G5-49 and G5-50). In what ways do the style and the
subject matter of these reliefs reflect the social, religious, and political
concerns of the society for which each ws made?
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