- 107-
The Origin of Life and Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle
Stefan Tallqvist
Technical Research Centre of Finland (VTT)
Espoo
Abstract Heisenberg's uncertainty principle denies the possibility of distinguishing two particles if
the difference in the momentum multiplied by the difference in position is less than Planck's
constant. The same principle is valid for the product of energy and time.
The difference between living and dead protoplasm is an example of systems with the same
chemistry but different energy states of the constituent particles. A prerequisite for the condition
that lifeless matter would be converted to a living cell involves the assumption that a very large
quantity of particles (molecules, protons and electrons) at a certain moment of time would have the
well defined energies to take their positions in the constituents of a living cell. An attempt is made
based on Heisenberg's principle to indicate that the summation of uncertainties of simultaneous
well defined locations and velocities of the particle constituents of the living cell leads to a
probability approaching zero. Therefore a spontaneous formation of a living cell from any
available constituent raw material is impossible. It is concluded that a protoplasmic cell must have
either evolved over a very long period of chemical evolution or derives from previous
extraterrestrial life that has been implanted on Earth by some intelligent agent. The age of life on
Earth will also be briefly discussed.
1. Introduction
The question about the origin of life is still one of the great problems of sciences that is open to
controversial views and explanations. A review of the development of conceptions and theories
about the origin of life from ancient myths of creation to modem scientific views will be presented.
The key
- 108transitions (Table 1) summarise the principal phases in the history of ideas on the origin of life on
Earth (Table l):
Table 1: Key transitions in conceptions about the origin of Life
Ancient times
Folkloric and religious
Myths of creation
conceptions
_______________________________________________________________________
ca. 1700
Metaphysical conceptions
Spontaneous generation
ca. 1854
Darwin's theory
Biological evolution
ca. 1866
Mendel's experiments
Classical genetic theory
ca. 1887
Pasteur's experiments
Refutation of spontaneous
generation
ca. 1915
Protoplasmic theories
Biochemical theories
ca. 1911
Morgan's theory
Chemical genetics
ca. 1936
Oparin's theory
Chemical and geological
evolution
ca. 1950
Miller's Experiments
Synthesis of amino acids
ca. 1956
Crick and Watson
The genetic code
All ancient cultures and tribal peoples have had their conceptions and stories of creation of man
and the world. The idea of growth or evolution of mankind from animals was held by civilised man
much earlier than we use to think. Today it is obvious that many concepts which have been found
for example among the old Greeks are actually already found among the still older being, eg
(McCabe 1931) :"Some years ago we found in the ruins of what seems to have been a school
library in ancient Nippur a clay tablet which showed that the Sumerians had a version of the
evolution of man from lower animals."
As water and fat is the surrounding in the cell in which the chemical processes take place it might
also be noted that a Sumerian physician was an expert on the use of water "a-zu", on the use of oil
or fat "i-zu" or on the use of active chemicals from plants "u-zu" (Tallqvist 1943). (There is a slight
resemblance in those old Sumerian words to one of the first CETI-projects called Ozma which was
led by Frank D. Drake in 1960. Drake was interested in the story of the Wizard from Oz where
Ozma was the ruler of the mythical land of Oz. (Gardner 1966)
Before the 1860s, the question was primarily of philosophical and religious interest. The situation
changed radically when Darwin's theory of evolution implicitly raised the question of life's
beginnings within an historical perspective of life on Earth. The main classes of 19th-century
theories on the origin of life that were proposed as a result will be discussed briefly. It will be
argued that these latter theories, although in the mainstream of historical development, were
limited by the protoplasmic theory of life on which they were based.
-109The next important step was the formulation of theories founded on biochemistry and genetics,
respectively, when the sciences began to flourish in the early decades of the 20th century. A major
landmark during this phase was the publication in 1936 of Oparin's classic theory of the origin of
life. Oparins theory, with its strong roots in biochemistry, laid the experimental approaches that
have characterised the field since the 1950s. Theories based strictly on a genetic interpretation of
life had a somewhat later impact on experimental work relating to the problem.
The first macroscopic animals, known as the Ediacaran fauna, did not appear until the end of the
Proterozoic eon, some 85 percent of the way through the Earth's history. By sifting through ancient
sediments, we have sought to understand the nature of life just before the Ediacaran animals appear
in the fossil record and to identify environmental factors that may explain the timing of their
appearance. We now know that the Ediacaran radiation was indeed abrupt and that the geologic
floor to the animal fossil record is both real and sharp! The most recent eon is the Phanerozoic,
which began with the expansion of skeleton-forming organisms 540 million years ago and
continues to the present day. (Knoll 1991)
The previously documented interdependency of inorganic and living worlds is consistent with the
view that life is an important parameter in planetary evolution. According to the GAIA hypothesis
life also regulates the terrestrial exogenic system for its own benefit. Life is also constrained by
limits imposed by the interdependent populations. In the first instance, the development of a
suitable planetary system is controlled by vagaries of stellar evolution. Secondly, geological
evidence from this planet points out that tectonism, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere control the
biosphere and to some extent vice versa.
Hence, early this century, the view that vital processes are the outcome of the properties of a single
substance became untenable and the question of the origin of life had to be reformulated. What had
to be explained was the origin of systems composed of many different molecules acting in a
concerted way to effect various vital functions. Not surprisingly, most biochemists at the time
avoided this complex question. (Ferris 1988)
2. Conceptions about the Origin of Life in Darwin's Time
The following lines of wisdom appear as the introductory words to Charles Darwin's book 7he
Origin of Species By Means Of Natural Selection (Darwin 1928):
But with regard to the material word, we can at least go so far as this - we can perceive
that events are brought about not by
-110insulated interpositions of Divine power, exerted in each particular case, but by
establishment of general laws.
Whewell, Bridgewater Treatise
The only distinct meaning of the word "natural' is stated, fixed, or settled; since what is
natural as much requires and presupposes an intelligent agent to render it so, i.e. to effect
it continually or at stated times, as what is supernatural or miraculous does to effect it for
once.
Butler, Analogy of Revealed Religion.
To conclude, therefore, let no man out of a weak conceit of sobriety, or an ill-applied
moderation, think or maintain, that a man can search too far or be too well studied in the
book of God's word, or in the book of God's works; divinity or philosophy; but
rather let men endeavour an endless progress or proficiences in both.
Bacon, Advancement of Learning.
Such statements were typical for Darwin's time and when a scientific work is the result of one
man's lifetime the statements are on their right place. It would certainly not decrease the quality of
scientific papers even today if some more time were spent in the preparation of them and some
philosophic wisdom would accompany them.
In the concluding section of Darwin's work we find the following statements on the origin of life:
"As Professor Asa Gray has remarked, the spores and other reproductive bodies of many of the
lower algae may claim to have first a characteristically animal, and then an unequivocally
vegetable existence.
Therefore, on the principle of natural selection with divergence of character, it does not seem
incredible that, from some such low and intermediate form, both animals and plants may have been
developed; and, if we admit this, we must likewise admit that all the organic beings which have
ever lived on this Earth may be descended from some one primordial form."
"Hence we may look with some confidence to a secure future of great length. And as natural
selection works solely by and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments
will tend to progress towards perfection."
"There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by
the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according
to the fixed law of gravity,
- 111 from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are
being evolved."
3. Arrhenius' Theory of Panspermia
The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius (Arrhenius 1959) took a vivid interest in the investigation
of questions of the origin of life and other cosmological problems. His contemporaries among
geologists and biologists generally favoured the Aristotelean idea of spontaneous generation
(generatio spontanea or aequivoca) during an early stage of the history of the Earth. Arrhenius,
however, starting from the concept of infinity of time, did not have any need for a hypothesis
involving a singular event like the creation of life. Still it was necessary to find means for particles
of living matter to travel through space. The idea of panspermian goes back to the Pythagorean
school, but more definite statements regarding the mechanism of transport were not formulated
until the 19th century, when meteorites were proposed as vehicles for primitive organisms.
Arrhenius suggested that radiation pressure might be the driving force in transportation through
space "spores" of living matter which had to have a size of the order of the wave length of light, to
be able to escape from a solar system and to travel relatively rapidly through space. The critical
questions concerned the surviving of living matter after exposure during thousands or ten
thousands of years to low temperature and radiation in space.
Pasteur showed that careful elimination of microbial contamination prevents the growth of bacteria
in organic infusions. Especially after the discovery of bacterial spores in the early 1870s, and the
design of sterilisation methods which prevented their germination, Pasteur and his followers could
explain and predict the presence or absence of bacterial growth in infusions in a systematic
manner.
4. The Urantia Papers
The history of religion like the history of science (not to mention science fiction) is full of various
kinds cosmogonies and fantastic stories and beliefs about the origin of man and life on Earth. All
peoples and religions of the world have their myths of creation. Ancient Greek myths and
philosophers explained origins of things in terms of chaos, water, fire, atoms etc. From the many
later cosmographical conceptions we may mention monadology, the theory of infinitely nested
worlds, inherited from Greek philosophy but propounded further by Leibniz.
- 112Related conceptions have survived to the present time in various vitalistic, teleological and
anthropic theories. Usually they are based on theological ideas and beliefs that are sometimes
claimed to be divine revelations by their origin. One such text, dating from this century, is the
Urantia Book (Urantia Foundation 1955) that will be briefly discussed in the following.
Rarely does one find a book on theology or religion which seems to attempt shedding its wisdom
in almost every area of human endeavour. In its two-thousand pages The Urantia Book presents an
integrated picture of the universe which relates science, philosophy and religion in a holistic
synthesis. Evaluated on the basis of spiritual insight, philosophical coherence and realitycenteredness, it presents, in the judgement of thousands of people who have critically examined it,
one of the finest world views of religion available to contemporary humanity. (Sprunger 1985)
The Urantia Papers, also called The Urantia Book, has been an object of my interest and at times
intense study for almost 30 years. The text is an extraordinary piece of literature which comes
close to being an extraterrestrial message. On page 737 of the Urantia Paper 65 are the lines which
gave me the idea to present this paper:
"It is impossible accurately to determine, simultaneously, the exact location and the velocity of a
moving object; any attempt at measurement of either inevitably involves change in the other. The
same sort of a paradox confronts mortal man when he undertakes the chemical analysis of
protoplasm. The chemist can elucidate the chemistry of dead protoplasm, but he cannot discern
either the physical organisation or the dynamic performance of living protoplasm. Ever will the
scientist come nearer the secrets of life, but never will he find them and for no other reason than
that he must kill protoplasm in order to analyse it. Dead protoplasm weighs the same as living
protoplasm, but it is not the same."
"In every living plant or animal cell, in every living organism, material or spiritual, there is an
insatiable craving for the attainment of ever-increasing perfection of environmental adjustment,
organismal adaptation, and augmented life realisation. These interminable efforts of all living
things evidence the existence within them of an innate striving for perfection."
"During the earlier time of universe materialisation the space regions are interspersed with vast
hydrogen clouds, just such astronomic dust clusters as now characterise many regions throughout
remote space. These vast hydrogen clouds are veritable cosmic chemical laboratories, harbouring
all phases of evolving energy and metamorphosing matter. But none of these tremendous and
far-flung energy activities of space exerts the last influence upon the phenomenon of organised life
- the germ plasm of living things and beings."
- 113The origin of life on our planet "Urantia" is described as follows: "We (the Life Carriers) organised
and initiated the original life patterns of this world 550 million years ago and planted them in the
hospitable waters of the realm. After the life patterns have been formulated and the material
organizations have been duly completed, the supermaterial forces concerned in life propagation
become forthwith active, and life is existent. All planetary life on our life experiment planet had its
origin in our three original, identical, and simultaneous marine-life implantations. These three life
implantations have been designed as: the central or Eurasian- African, the eastern or Australian,
and the western, embracing Greenland and the Americas.
These life implantations of marine vegetable life was made in the water filled cracks between the
continental masses which were drifting apart from one large land mass.
The bacteria, simple vegetable organisms of a very primitive nature, are very little changed from
the early dawn of life; they even exhibit a degree of retrogression in their parasitic behaviour.
Many of the fungi also represent a retrograde movement in evolution, being plants which have lost
their chlorophyll making ability and have become more or less parasitic. The majority of
disease-causing bacteria and their auxiliary virus bodies really belong to this group of renegade
parasitic fungi. During the intervening ages all of the vast kingdom of plants has evolved from
ancestors from which the bacteria have also descended.
There has been discussion recently about the oldest trilobites from America and Siberia. They are
distinctly different and must have taken a slightly different course of development at a very early
stage."
"From era to era radically new species of animal life arise. They do not evolve as the result of the
gradual accumulation of small variations; they appear as full-fledged and new orders of life, and
they appear suddenly. The sudden appearance of new species and diversified orders of living
organisms is wholly biological, strictly natural. There is nothing supernatural connected with these
genetic mutations."
The time for the life implantation is determined by the geological evolution of the planet: "The Life
Carriers had projected a sodium chloride pattern of life; therefore no steps could be taken toward
planting it until the ocean waters had become sufficiently briny. The Urantia type of protoplasm
can function only in a suitable salt solution." (Paper 58, page 664). (Sodium chloride solutions that
are suitable for sustaining living cells are called Ringer's solutions)
Also the atmosphere which later will be changed by the life processes is described: "The Earth's
atmosphere is all but opaque to much of the solar radiation at the extreme ultraviolet end of the
spectrum. Most of the short
-114wave lengths are absorbed by a layer of ozone which exists throughout a level about ten miles
above the surface of the Earth, and which extends spaceward for another ten miles. The ozone
permeating this region, at conditions prevailing on the Earth's surface, would make a layer only
one tenth of an inch thick; nevertheless, this relatively small and apparently insignificant amount of
ozone protects Urantia inhabitants from the excess of these dangerous and destructive ultraviolet
radiations present in sunlight. But were this ozone layer just a trifle thicker, you would be deprived
of the highly important and health-giving ultraviolet rays which now reach the Earth's surface, and
which are ancestral to one of the most essential of your vitamins."
"The formation of the planetary system began 4500 million years ago and resulted in 12 (!) planets.
There are five inner and five outer planets with Jupiter and Saturn in the middle. Of one of the
inner planets only the asteroid belt is left today." It might be noted that recently at least one large
planet like body has been found outside of Pluto's orbit.
"2500 million years ago the planets had grown immensely in size. Urantia was a well-developed
sphere about one tenth its present mass and was still growing rapidly by meteoric accretion."
"1500 million years ago the Earth was two thirds its present size, while the moon was nearing its
present mass. Earth's rapid gain over the moon in size enabled it to begin the slow robbery of the
little atmosphere which its satellite originally had. Volcanic action is now at its height. The whole
Earth is a veritable fiery inferno, the surface resembling its earlier molten state before the heavier
metals gravitated toward the centre. This is the volcanic age. Nevertheless, a crust, consisting
chiefly of the comparatively lighter granite, is gradually forming. The stage is being set for a planet
which can someday support life."
Conceptual developments in the field of the origin of life have been characterised by a rich
interplay between philosophical assumptions regarding the nature of life, methodological issues
concerning the investigation and explanation of vital behaviour and theoretical developments in the
biological sciences. (Ferris 1988)
Today it is known that 550 million years ago there happened a sudden explosion of life forms and
the era that followed is sometimes called "the period of obvious life".
Whatever the origin of the Urantia Papers is it represents a piece of text that belongs to at least to
the history of religion and contains a lot of interesting material and ideas that can be studied like
any other script whose origin is unknown to present day science.
- 1155. Oparin's Theory of the Origin of Life
The modem paradigm for scientific study of the origin of life was laid by Oparin's classic work
"The Origin of Life", first published in 1936 in Russian and translated into English in 1938
(Kamminga 1988). Oparin gave substance to the notion of chemical and geological evolution by
his very detailed consideration of the interaction between the environment and organic matter at
successive stages of formation of the geological conditions on Earth and evolution of early life
forms.
Oparin was the first in the field to draw extensively on independent evidence from a wide range of
scientific disciplines to establish the plausibility of his model. He presented a model that was
partially testable. Geochemical studies, chemical and mineralogical analysis of meteorites and
spectroscopic studies of stars, comets and planets suggested that the prebiotic Earth had a reducing
atmosphere. As the organic molecules became more complex, colloidal reactions came into play
and organic matter became concentrated locally in the form of individual colloidal bodies called
coacervates.
The most striking feature of the coacervates was their capacity to absorb and assimilate organic
matter from the aqueous environment and utilise this material in reactions leading to their growth
and development, a feature strongly reminiscent of metabolism. This idea of the fundamental unity
of metabolism provided him with the focus of his theory. Oparin continued to extend and modify
the theory for the rest of his life.
6. Present Life Forms
Present-day life is divided into two great categories, whose distinctions are far more basic than are
the differences between the plant and animal kingdoms. Bacteria and blue-green algae, collectively
known as procaryotes, have cells that lack a chromosome-bearing nucleus to transmit messages for
cell construction during reproduction. All other organisms, from single-celled plants and animals
to oak trees and elephants, are made up of cells having such a nucleus. These nucleus-bearing
organisms are collectively known as eucaryotes.
Chemical traces of early life forms prior to the procaryotes are provided by complex carbon
compounds extracted from Precambrian sediments. Recent development of very precise analytical
techniques has led to the identification of many such compounds but their interpretation is difficult
(MacAlester 1977).
-1167. The Chemical Components of Life
Chemically organisms are but endlessly varied combinations and permutations of five principal
constituents (McAlester 1977): water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids (Table 2).
Table 2: Principal Basic Chemical Constituents of Life.
Compound
Function
Composition
___________________________________________________________
Water
Universal solvent
Hydrogen, oxygen
Carbohydrates
Energy source
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon
Fats
Energy storage
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon
Proteins
Structural; facilitation
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
of chemical reactions
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur
(organized into 20 amino acids
"building blocks")
Nucleic acids
Patterns for protein
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon,
(RNA, DNA)
construction
nitrogen, phosphorus
(organized into 5 nucleotides "building blocks")
___________________________________________________________
Water is by far the most common of these constituents. It is a solvent for many substances within
organisms, and it also enters directly into the molecular structure of other essential compounds.
Carbohydrates (sugar and starches) and fats serve primarily as energy suppliers. In more advanced
kinds of animals and plants nucleic acids are concentrated in the cell nucleus where they provide
templates which serve as patterns for the manufacture of all the different proteins required by the
cell.
There are 92 chemical elements which occur naturally on Earth. Only 27 of these are essential
components of life, and not all of these are essential to all living things. The first requirement for
the origin of life, then, was a supply of these chemical elements in forms that might combine into
proteins, nucleic acids, and the other components of living systems. There are suggestions that just
such conditions may have existed early in the history of Earth as indicated by Miller's high-energy
electrical spark experiments in 1953 at the University of Chicago. Miller's discovery opened a new
field of investigation of experimental synthesis of the chemical constituents of life under "primitive
Earth conditions".
Spectroscopic analysis of sunlight, combined with chemical analysis of meteo-rites, provide means
of calculating the relative abundance of the chemical elements in the Solar System. These
calculations show that the four elements
-117essential for life are among the most abundant in the Solar System today (Table 3):
Table 3: Relative Abundance of elements in the Solar System.
Rank
Element
Symbol Abundance
_________________________________________
1
Hydrogen
H
2500000
2
Helium
He
380000
3
Oxygen
O
2500
4
Carbon
C
930
5
Nitrogen
N
240
6
Silicon
Si
100
7
Magnesium
Mg
91
8
Neon
Ne
80
_________________________________________
All amino acids can be derived from alanine. Alanine can occur in two different forms. One in
which the central carbon atom are arranged in a configuration that caused polarized light to be
rotated in left-handed screw sense (L-alanine). The other in which polarized light would be rotated
in the opposite sense (D-alanine). All amino acids found in proteins are L-amino acids. On Earth
amino acids are overwhelmingly in the left-handed form. Why that should be so is a mystery,
because chemically speaking the right- and left-handed forms are equally probable.
Some meteorites showed D- and L-forms in essentially equal abundances. These amino acids are
therefore very unlikely to have been biogenic contaminants. Biogenic molecules and molecules
needed for existence of life therefore seem prevalent elsewhere. They occur naturally not just on
Earth (Harwit 1973).
8. Quantum Physics and Life
Living things are composed of lifeless molecules. When these molecules are isolated and examined
individually, they conform to all the physical and chemical laws that describe the behaviour of
inanimate matter. (Gribbin 1987)
In 1897 (Joseph J. Thomson) electrons were discovered and identified as tiny negative charged
particles. For the story of chemistry, all that is needed is an understanding of how electrons behave,
because the electron cloud is the visible face that an atom shows to the world. It is the outermost
electrons in that cloud that interact directly with other atoms when atoms join together to form
molecules. Some of those molecules may contain tens of thousands, even
-118hundreds of thousands of atoms. Each of those chemical compounds seems to have a specific role
to play in the healthy functioning of the whole.
The essence of life, ultimately due to the behaviour of those complex molecules working together,
is the ability of living things to extract energy from their environment and to use that energy both
to build up their own complex structures and to copy themselves (to replicate). For all life on the
surface of the Earth, the ultimate source of that energy is sunlight, trapped in plants by
photosynthesis. (Recently, however, organisms have been found in the hot springs and deep ocean,
far from any source of sunlight; that derive energy from underwater volcanic hotspots and lead
their lives quite cut off from the rest of the ecological web. Like us they, too, depend on an outside
source of energy.)
In the everyday world, the wave nature of matter is undetectable because the masses involved are
so large compared with Planck's constant, h. But the smaller the mass of the particle involved, the
more important its wave nature becomes, until for the massless particles of electromagnetic
radiation, the photons, both facets of nature are equally important.
In quantum physics, uncertainty is a definite thing. It was a German physicist, Werner Heisenberg,
who came up with this concept in 1927. So Heisenberg deduced two things: for a small particle
like an electron, it is impossible to measure its position and its momentum precisely. In theory, we
can measure either quantity as accurately as we like, just short of absolute precision. It is a
fundamental law of nature, which says that there is no such thing as a particle, which has a
precisely defined position and a precisely defined momentum at the same time. And this
uncertainty extends to other pairs of quantities, such as the time a fundamental event takes and the
amount of energy involved in the event.
In 1928 Linus Pauling developed the principle of resonance which says that if a molecule can be
described in two (or more) equally acceptable ways, then the molecule has to be thought of as
existing in both (or all) of those states simultaneously. The molecule is a hybrid of all the possible
structures with the same lowest energy. Today quantum physics is combined with Schrodinger's
modified wave equation to describe the behaviour of electrons and atoms.
In the1940s Erwin Schroidinger wrote a little book titled 'What is Life" (Schrodinger 1944).
Another physicist better known for his research in cosmology, George Gamow, brought the idea of
a code analogous to the Morse code to the attention of molecular biologists in early 1950s, just
after Watson and Crick had published their first two papers on the nature of DNA. Today there are
projects underway to map the totality of the human genetic information.
-119It is obvious that quantum physics and life processes are closely related. Manipulation of single
atoms has recently been demonstrated by IBM using methods of nanotechnology, a first step
towards molecular nanomachines and possibly synthesis of molecules of life. When the molecular
level is reached scientists will either find that there is no difference between organic and inorganic
chemistry or that a lifeless cell could not be brought to life without violating Heisenberg's
uncertainty principle.
The Heisenberg principle of uncertainty does not, however, preclude of complex chemical
reactions, such as replication, protein synthesis, metabolism, photosynthesis etc., to take place at
great precision under appropriate physicochemical conditions like those prevailing in a living cell,
once these conditions and their self-regulation mechanisms have emerged.
9. Summary
The Urantia Book contains interesting material on the origin of life, ancient cultures and many
fundamental questions connected with SETI. Indeed, there might be intelligent civilizations in the
universe, which are so advanced that they are able to manipulate particles with an accuracy that our
knowledge of physics and the Heisenberg's principle would deny. To start life would need such a
mysterious "spark of life". "You know, it would be sufficient to really understand the electron"
Albert Einstein said. (Dehmelt 1990)
10. References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Arrhenius, S. (1959): Svante Arrhenius, till 100-arsminnet av hans
fodelse, K. Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Arsbok for ar 1959, bilaga,
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Clarke A.C., ed., (1967): The Coming of the Space Age, Victor Gollancz
Ltd, London
Darwin C. (1928): The Origin of Species By Means Of Natural Selection,
Sixth Edition, (first published 1859), Everyman's Library, J.M. Dent &
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Dehmelt H. (1990): Experiments with an isolated subatomic particle at
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"The Ambidextrous Universe"), Tema, Raben & Sjogren, Stockholm
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New York, U.S.A.
12. Harwit M. (1973): Astrophysical Concepts, John Wiley & Sons Inc., U.S.A
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16. Knoll A.H. (199l): End of the Proterozoic Eon, Scientific American, October 1991
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American Academy of Religion meeting at Anaheim 11/25/85, Los Angeles, CA.
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sammantrade den 13 december 1943, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Arsbok, Helsingfors 1944
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