Conservation for a blue planet:
Monitoring and controlling trade in marine species
For thousands of years people have viewed the world’s oceans as a boundless resource, providing
food, minerals, a highway for transportation, a place to dump garbage and waste, and more recently,
a source of power. However, over-exploitation of critical food sources, together with increasing
levels of pollution, ship traffic, and exploitation of offshore mineral resources, has brought the
oceans to crisis point. The centuries-old view of the seas as a limitless resource is being replaced by
a new awareness of the urgent need to protect the marine environment and its wildlife.
WWF believes the 12th meeting of the CITES Conference of the Parties (CoP 12) being held in
Santiago, Chile, from 3–15 November 2002 is a key opportunity for governments to take action
against one factor behind the crisis in our seas – over-exploitation of marine species through
unregulated international trade and pirate fishing.
WWF also believes that CoP 12 provides an opportunity for CITES to develop an important new
role in regulating international trade in species regarded as commodities rather than wildlife. In
particular, proposals to add toothfish (Disstostichus spp.) and two sharks (Rhincodon typus and
Cetorhinus maximus) to CITES Appendix II could prove an important milestone in the evolution of
CITES, bringing these commercially valuable marine fisheries under the Convention’s protection.
In the case of toothfish, the precedent involved in listing a species subject to deep-ocean
commercial fisheries in the high seas would certainly help to signal the “coming of age” of CITES
as an international conservation instrument.
WWF urges the 160 CITES ‘Parties’ (governments) and other international and national institutions
concerned with marine fisheries to support the positive role that CITES can play in reducing illegal,
unreported, unregulated (IUU) fishing and ensuring the sustainable use of fish stocks and other
marine species. From tiny seahorses harvested for traditional medicines to the gigantic whale shark
harvested for its meat and fins, this CoP may determine whether the oceans can survive the most
voracious marine predator of all — humans.
WHY CITES?
CITES – the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora –
has well-established processes to protect species that are traded internationally. Trade of species
listed in its Appendices is strictly controlled to ensure that trade is legal and does not harm the
species' survival in the wild.
Not one of the more than 30,000 species protected by CITES has become extinct as a result of trade
since the Convention entered into force in 1975. Some indeed are traded commercially at very high
volumes, such as queen conch (Strombus gigas; traded primarily for food) and crocodiles and
alligators (traded for their skins). In addition, CITES has already proved its value in regulation of a
commercial fishery through the listing of sturgeon species in Appendix II to combat overfishing and
the illegal trade in caviar.
A debate has been running for several years over whether commercially fished marine species
should be included in the CITES Appendices. The strongest opponents to this have frequently been
nations involved in large-scale commercial fishing on the high seas, who have argued that fisheries
should be managed either through the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) or through multilateral agreements for specific fisheries or regions. However, the regional
nature of these agreements, or their lack of enforcement, can be important roadblocks to effective
management and conservation.
Cooperation between CITES and existing organisations has proved an effective way to achieve
long-term conservation results. CITES could provide support to existing national and multilateral
agreements for marine fisheries and assist in combating IUU fishing. One important, and currently
missing, tool that CITES could provide to assist monitoring of fish stocks and control of IUU
fishing is a standardised, global process for tracking international trade in designated marine
species. By restricting international trade to products from legal fisheries, CITES could also provide
additional protection to nations with low-intensity community-based (artisanal) fisheries that might
otherwise be destroyed by high-intensity illegal fishing.
HOW DOES CITES WORK?
Species may be listed on one of three Appendices, according to the level of threat they face:

Appendix I lists species in danger of extinction. International commercial trade in these species
is banned.

Appendix II lists species not necessarily currently threatened with extinction, but which may
become so unless trade is subject to strict regulation. Commercial trade in these species is
allowed on the condition that specimens are legally obtained and the trade is not detrimental to
the wild population.

Appendix III lists species that are protected in at least one country, where that country has
asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the species' trade.
PROPOSALS FOR MARINE SPECIES AT COP 12
Patagonian and Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus spp.): proposed for inclusion in
Appendix II
In many ways, the case of the Patagonian toothfish demonstrates some of the most fundamental
flaws in global fisheries management. A relatively recent and rapidly growing international demand
for toothfish — which is marketed under various names, including Chilean sea bass and mero —
has been fuelled in part by declining or collapsed fish stocks elsewhere in the world. Well-designed
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management measures are handicapped because they are limited to parties in a regional agreement.
Finally, no international compliance measures currently exist to ensure that nations around the
world do all they can to prevent illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing of this species.
Listing in Appendix II of CITES would therefore be of great benefit to this commercially valuable
marine species as well as to the future of global fisheries management.
The Patagonian toothfish is a slow-growing species found in the deep waters of the Southern Ocean.
It can grow up to 2 metres long and reach a weight of 100 kilograms during its unusually long life
span of 40–50 years. The species takes 10 years or longer to reach sexual maturity and spawns at
depths greater than 1,500m. Its low reproductive rate, late age of sexual maturity, and slow growth
make it extremely vulnerable to over-exploitation.
Patagonian and the smaller, faster growing Antarctic toothfish are fished in the Southern Ocean, in
a fishery managed by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
(CCAMLR), the body governing the conservation of marine resources in the Antarctic. CCAMLR
has developed proactive management measures for toothfish. However, a number of nations who
are not parties to CCAMLR are involved in the harvesting, landing, or trade of toothfish, so the
application of these measures has been minimal outside of CCAMLR’s 24 members and seven
‘acceding states’.
Rapidly growing international demand for toothfish has fuelled high levels of IUU fishing of some
stocks. This IUU fishing is the single biggest threat to the species. According to a 2001 report by
TRAFFIC - the wildlife trade monitoring network, data for the past three fishing seasons indicate
that while 90,429 tonnes of toothfish were caught legally, a conservative estimate of 151,771 tonnes
were traded internationally. In many cases, IUU fishing vessels are registered in non-CCAMLR
nations in order to avoid CCAMLR obligations.
IUU fishing has already led to the devastation of toothfish stocks in South African waters, and is a
major problem elsewhere, including in Australian and French territorial waters. After stock
collapse, IUU fishing has simply moved on to target new stocks. Devastation of fish stocks is also
accompanied by the devastation of seabird populations, including albatrosses, as IUU fishers do not
abide by conservation measures to minimise by-catch.
Inclusion of the Patagonian toothfish, and the "look alike" Antarctic toothfish, in CITES Appendix
II, together with adoption of the annotation and resolution suggested to accompany the listing,
would extend CCAMLR conservation and management measures to a further 130 nations. This
would help ensure the future sustainability of this fishery, and also help protect seabirds from being
caught as by-catch.
WWF urges the CITES Parties to support the proposal to list toothfish (Dissostichus spp.) on
Appendix II, including the WWF-recommended revised Annotation and Resolution establishing the
conditions under which international trade in toothfish should occur.
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For additional information, see the WWF Position Statement on Toothfish, the TRAFFIC report
“Patagonian toothfish: are conservation and trade measures working?” and the TRAFFIC report
“Uncharted Waters: Implementation issues and potential benefits of listing toothfish in Appendix II
of CITES.”
Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) and basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus): proposed for
inclusion in Appendix II
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species currently identifies
conservation concerns for 79 shark species. Sharks continue to suffer from high levels of unreported
by-catch and growing markets for fins, meat, cartilage, and oil. Their slow growth, low birth rate,
and late sexual maturity make them particularly susceptible to over-exploitation.
Since 1994, the CITES Parties have expressed increasing levels of concern about shark
conservation. Various decisions and resolutions in recent years have encouraged the collection of
biological and trade data, the establishment of international agreements to address shark
conservation needs, and cooperation with FAO. In 1999 the FAO Committee on Fisheries agreed to
an International Plan of Action for Sharks, but implementation is voluntary, and progress is slow. In
the meantime, shark populations continue their steep decline.
The whale shark, largest of all fish, may live up to 100 years, growing to more than 20 metres and
exceeding 30 tonnes. Increasing demand for meat in eastern Asian markets, where prices have been
known to reach $US11/kg, has resulted in a growing number of legal and illegal fisheries for whale
sharks. The species is wide-ranging throughout the world's warm tropical waters, and sharks may
move through national waters of many nations. This means both that measures at the national level
will not be sufficient to ensure management and conservation, and that declines in numbers in
unfished areas may be the result of fisheries elsewhere. In addition, populations may consistently
return to the same local feeding locations, making them vulnerable to targeted harvesting in these
areas. International regulation of whale shark fishing is therefore critical. The whale shark has been
classified as “Vulnerable” by IUCN, and although the species is protected nationally in a handful of
countries, listing in CITES Appendix II offers the only established, effective means of monitoring
international trade and ensuring its sustainable management.
The basking shark is the second largest marine fish, reaching lengths of up to 10 metres. Demand
for basking shark fins is large and growing, with processed sets of fins bringing as much as
$US330/kg on the Hong Kong market. In 1998 a single metre-high fin was on sale in a Chinese
restaurant for slightly less than $US10,000; in 1999 and 2000 similar fins were seen elsewhere in
China at prices exceeding $US16,600. Like the whale shark, the basking shark is classified as
“Vulnerable” by IUCN and receives limited protection in a few nations. However, reported
reductions in numbers of 50–90% in some areas clearly indicate the need for international
conservation measures.
WWF urges the CITES Parties to support proposals to list the Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) and
basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus) in Appendix II; to establish a formal dialogue between CITES
and FAO to progress shark conservation; and to establishment a review procedure for shark species.
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For additional information, see the WWF Position Statement on Sharks, WWF Fact Sheets on the
Whale Shark and Basking Shark, and “The role of CITES in the conservation and management of
sharks”, prepared by IUCN and TRAFFIC and circulated to the CITES Parties as Notification
2002/42.
Seahorses (Hippocampus spp.): proposed for inclusion in Appendix II
Whether dried for use in traditional medicines, sold as curios in tourist shops, or harvested live to
supply the aquarium trade, seahorses have become a valuable resource for an increasing number of
countries around the world. At least 75 nations are now known to trade in seahorses, but few
international conservation measures exist to ensure that the trade is sustainable. Their low
reproduction rate (males produce from 5–15 offspring per pregnancy), short life-span (one – five
years depending on the species), low population density, and large investment in parental care
makes seahorses particularly susceptible to over-exploitation.
Topping the list of seahorse markets is the Asian market for traditional medicine. In the 1980s and
early 1990s, annual consumption in Asia was estimated at 45 metric tonnes, or 16 million seahorses
annually, sold whole or processed into tonics or pills. Some estimates indicate that as many as one
million enter the aquarium trade each year, while an unknown number end up as dried curios in
beach resorts and shell shops around the world.
Management of seahorse fisheries is currently not well developed. There is a lack of information on
the biology and population dynamics of most species, and the nature of the fishery means that
catches frequently go unreported. Many of the countries involved in the fishery are developing
nations which lack the capacity and financial resources necessary for the development and
implementation of sustainable harvest programmes, although community-based management
systems are having increasing success in Viet Nam, the Philippines, and other areas. A CITES
listing on Appendix II could provide these nations with support for local efforts, while proving
critical to understanding and monitoring the global trade in seahorses and helping to ensure they
receive adequate protection.
WWF urges the CITES Parties to support the proposal to list seahorses (Hippocampus spp.) in
Appendix II.
Humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus): proposed for inclusion in Appendix II
Humphead wrasse is part of the “live reef food fish trade”: fish (mainly groupers and wrasses) that
are traded live for luxury restaurant markets in Hong Kong, mainland China, Singapore, and other
nations. In this trade, rare species such as the humphead wrasse command the highest prices,
ranging from $US90–170/kg in Hong Kong. Unfortunately markets such as this one, in which the
rarity of a species contributes to its desirability as a luxury food, can quickly lead to species
depletion since demand continues to grow even as the species becomes rarer and more expensive.
Humpheads are the largest member of the wrasse family, growing to over two metres and 190
kilograms. The species lives for as long as 30 years, reaching sexual maturity at 5–7 years. One
curious aspect of its life history is that the species is hermaphroditic, with a female-to-male sex
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change as it grows. This curiosity may also make it more vulnerable to fisheries targeting larger
fish, since larger humphead wrasses are typically all males. Humpheads play an important role in
the reef ecosystem as predators of the crowns-of-thorns starfish, whose occasional population
explosions have resulted in massive coral destruction across Indo-Pacific reefs.
Although detailed trade data are inconsistent and lacking in many areas, information from markets,
fisheries, and surveys throughout its range indicate that the humphead wrasse is declining in many
areas and has virtually disappeared from others.
Classified as “Vulnerable” by IUCN, there are currently no international measures in place to
monitor or control the trade in humphead wrasses. Given the nature of the market for this species
and the lack of coordinated national and regional management measures, a CITES Appendix II
listing is important for consistent data collection, improved understanding of trade routes, and strict
regulation of harvesters and shippers. Without it, this species is very likely to continue its current
decline.
WWF urges the CITES Parties to support the addition of the humphead wrasse (Cheilinus
undulatus) to Appendix II.
Minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) and Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni):
proposed for downlisting from Appendix I to Appendix II
The CITES Parties will also consider two proposals to lessen protection for Minke whales and
Bryde’s whale by transferring them from their current position on Appendix I to Appendix II,
allowing international trade for the first time since 1986.
All the great whales, including these two species, have been included on CITES Appendix I since
the International Whaling Commission (IWC), the primary international management body for
whaling, agreed that a moratorium on commercial whaling would become effective in 1986. The
CITES Parties have consistently acknowledged and respected the views of the IWC and affirmed its
position as the sole authority for regulating whaling by passing a number of resolutions to that
effect.
Efforts to resume commercial whaling cannot be taken lightly. The current moratorium is in place
because the whaling industry was clearly unable to manage commercial whaling in a sustainable
manner, bringing whale species all over the world to the brink of extinction. New information
regarding under-reporting of catches and falsification of data by some whaling nations continues to
come to light, and the population status of many whale species remains in doubt. Perhaps most
importantly, a rigorous and enforceable monitoring and compliance regime that would prevent the
excesses of the past has still not been agreed by the IWC members. At the same time, commercial
whaling by Norway continues under an objection to the moratorium and outside of the guidelines
recommended by the IWC’s Scientific Committee, as does whaling by Japan under self-granted
“scientific” research permits.
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Until all the management measures are in place to ensure that whaling nations do not repeat their
past practice of unsustainable whaling, it is critical that CITES Parties do not undertake any actions
that would undermine the effectiveness of the IWC.
WWF urges the CITES Parties to reject the proposals to transfer Minke whales (Balaenoptera
acutorostrata) and Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni) from Appendix I to Appendix II.
For additional information, see the WWF Position Statement on Whales, Fact Sheet on Northern
and Southern minke whales, and Fact Sheet on Bryde’s whales.
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