APES FINAL EXAM REVIEW: TOP TEN LISTS
Top 10: Geology
The Anatomy of the Earth
 Core: the innermost part of the Earth, comprised of nickel and iron. The inner core is solid due to high pressure, while the
outer core is liquid due to high temperatures.
 Mantle: located outside the core, this section includes the asthenosphere, in which soft flowing magma circulates in
convection cells (convection: the transfer of heat in fluids), the movement of which is responsible for tectonic plate
movements.
 Asthenosphere: outer mantle, consisting of semi molten rock.
 Lithosphere: the brittle, outermost layer of the Earth. It includes the solid upper mantle and the Earth’s crust. It is made out
of plates that overlie convection cells. This is the part of the Earth that moves.
 Continental crust: thicker, less dense crust, made up of mostly granite.
 Oceanic crust: thinner, denser crust, made up mostly of basalt.
2. Geologic History
 Continental drift: the movement of Earth’s landmasses across the ocean beds over time. Theory developed by Alfred
Wegener who hypothesized that the continents were once part of a single supercontinent called Pangaea.
 Plate tectonics: theory that Earth’s lithosphere is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion.
3. Types of Tectonic Plate Boundaries
Divergent boundary: boundary at which two plates are moving in opposite directions, often resulting in the creation of new
oceanic crust.
Convergent boundary: boundary at which two plates are moving towards each other, often resulting in earthquakes when both
plates are continental, and volcanoes when the plates are oceanic.
Subduction: the sinking of one plate underneath a less dense plate. Usually occurs when a continental and oceanic plate
converge.
Transform boundary: boundary at which two plates slide past one another.
4. Geographic Features
 Hot spots: places where molten material from the mantel reaches the lithosphere.
 Volcano: a vent or opening in the lithosphere that releases lava, gas, and ash.
 Seafloor spreading: the process of oceanic plates diverging and magma forming new oceanic crust in the remaining gap,
bringing up important elements from the inner earth with it.
5. Faults (Fault: a fracture in rock, across which there is movement
 Fault zones: large expanses of rock where movement has occurred. These locales form where two plates meet. They
characteristically have mounting pressure and are areas of seismic activity.
6. Earthquakes
Earthquake: a phenomenon that occurs when rocks of the lithosphere rupture unexpectedly along a fault line and release a sudden
burst of energy.
Epicenter: the exact point on Earth’s surface directly above the rupturing rock.
Richter scale: the scale used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake. It is logarithmic.
7. The Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle: the constant formation and destruction of rock. The Rock Cycle is the slowest of all Earth’s cycles.
Minerals: solid chemical substances with uniform structures that form under specific temperatures and pressures. Rock is
composed of minerals.
Magma: the original source of all rock.
8. Igneous Rock
Igneous rock: rock formed by the rapid cooling of magma
Basaltic igneous rock: dark colored, highly concentrated in iron, magnesium, and calcium. Dominant in oceanic crust.
Granitic igneous rock: lighter colored, mostly feldspar, mica, and quartz. Dominant in continental crust.
Intrusive igneous rock: forms within Earth as magma rises up and cools underground.
Extrusive igneous rock: forms when magma cools above Earth’s surface
9. Sedimentary and Metamorphic Rock
Sedimentary rock: rock composed of organic and inorganic materials that are compressed by overlying sediments over long
periods of time. This type of rock holds the fossil record.
Metamorphic rock: rock that has been transformed under intense heat and pressure. Types of metamorphic rocks are considered
important building materials, such as slate, marble, and anthracite.
10. Weathering and Erosion
Weathering: the breakdown of rock material through the action of wind, rain, and microorganisms
Physical weathering: the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals caused by wind, water, and biological agents.
Chemical weathering: the breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions or the dissolving of chemical elements from
rocks.
Erosion: the physical removal of rock fragments from a landscape or ecosystem or the loss of topsoil through the action of wind
and rain.
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Deposition: the accumulation of eroded materials such as sediment, rock fragments, or soil.
Topic: Soil
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Formation of soil:
result of physical/chemical weathering of rocks + accumulation of detritus
parent material - gives soil its inorganic components
climate - temperature + precipitation affect speed of soil formation
topography - sloped topography facilitates accelerated erosion rates
organisms - healthy soil communities facilitate soil formation + maintenance
time - development of soil profiles + accumulation of nutrients takes time
Soil Horizons:
O - organic detritus
A - topsoil/humus (mix of minerals + organic material)
E - leaching zone (metals + dissolved organic acids that forms in some acidic soils)
B - subsoil (mineral content + little organic matter)
C - bedrock/parent material
Ecosystem Services:
global biogeochemical cycle
water filtration/ retention
tool to grow food
decomposers
Soil texture: ratio of particle size
(clay, sand, silt, loam)
compare percentages of above textures on soil triangle to determine overall texture
different textures⇒different soil properties
water filtration/holding capacity, nutrient holding capacity, aeration/porosity, workability
Soil conservation practices (to minimize erosion/desertification):
no/low till
terracing
contour planting
agroforestry
windbreaks/shelter crops
rotation of crop w/ ground cover
sustaining/rotating grazing
Soil profiles:
aridisols - desert biomes
mollisols - grassland biomes
oxisols - tropical rainforest biome
alfisols - deciduous forest biome
Organic v. inorganic fertilizers
environmental and economic costs/benefits to both
Physical tests (soil sieve test, percolation rate, color, soil profile analysis)
Chemical tests (pH, nutrient/metal measures, cation exchange capacity, base saturation)
Biotic soil properties (algae, decomposers, detritivores, plant roots, animals)
Biogeochemical Cycles
Sophie and Emma A
1) Biogeochemical Cycles are descriptions of how matter cycles through ecosystems. They pass through
organisms, geological and atmospheric states, and changes in chemical forms. An example of this is the Nitrogen
cycle, the change from N2 gas, to ammonium, to nitrite and nitrate, and back to N2 gas. Organisms responsible for
assistance in these cycles are things like bacteria.
2) Carbon entering any “pools” such as the ocean or large forests is always naturally balanced out by
carbon leaving the pools until the Industrial Revolution when human activities began to distort the cycle. Example:
Carbon used in photosynthesis ends up in the soil, where decomposers then release the carbon, at the same gradual
rate it is taken in, back into the atmosphere. Humans interrupt this cycle by cutting down trees, disabling them from
performing photosynthesis, or burning them, directly releasing their carbon.
3) Carbon is the most important element in living organisms.
Example: Carbon plays a major role in
oceanic ecosystems in many different ways. CO2 may dissolve into the ocean and enter the food web by
photosynthesis, and some combines with calcium ions in the water to create calcium carbonate, (CaCO3). Coral
reefs are formed using calcium carbonate, as are many different species of organisms’ shells in the ocean, making
carbon vital to their livelihood.
4) The hydraulic cycle is a catalyst for many other biogeochemical cycles. Example: Water travels down
mountainsides, as ice and snow melts, into a water body. It carries whatever it picks up on its trail, which can
include elements from any of the cycles, bringing them to their next stop. Water will never stop cycling through our
atmosphere, and therefore is a great constant for these other elements.
5) Macronutrients such as Calcium, magnesium and potassium all are derived from rocks and
decomposed vegetation. They are also positively charged, meaning that they are present on the negative charges on
soil surface particles, and therefore important nutrients for plants and animals living in the soil.
6) Calcium and Magnesium are important ions because they occur in high concentrations in, which is a
rock commonly found in/around bodies of water. The positive charge of the ions in the stone can help balance out
the pH, making it more basic, which is useful because human activities have been increasing the pH of many water
bodies.
7) Nitrogen Cycle: Nitrogen makes up the majority of gas in our atmosphere. The cycle goes through four
steps: Nitrogen fixation or ammonification, nitrification, assimilation, and denitrification. This process cycles
nitrogen in different forms through an ecosystem in order for it to be taken up by plants.
8) The Phosphorus Cycle is the only one without a presence of the gas in the atmosphere. Phosphorus is
commonly a limiting nutrient. Phosphate is the form that organisms that able to use. Phosphorus is also a leading
cause for algal blooms and eutrophication, leading to hypoxic conditions.
9) Sinks versus Sources are very different. A carbon source, for example, creates carbon. An example of
this is combustion. When something is combusted, carbon is made. A sink is something that stores carbon. For
example, trees store carbon during photosynthesis.
10) Decomposers versus Detritivores: Detritivores eat waste products and dead stuff. Their waste
products go into the environment. Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes into the environment.
Ecology
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Ecological Efficiency: When energy passes from trophic levels, roughly only 10% is retained
e.g. eagle eating fish only gets 10% of the energy that fish got from eating a smaller fish.
A niche is an organism’s “livelihood”; complete with food and living space. Species evolve
adaptations such as camouflage that allow them to “fit into” their niches.
Primary succession occurs from pure rock with no previous vegetative life. Secondary
succession occurs after a natural disaster, thus reaching climax community more quickly than
primary succession because, among other things, has a pre-existing seed bank.
r-selected species generally produce a lot of offspring quickly who mature quickly without
much parental support. K-selected species are a lot slower to raise their young and don’t
make as many of them and the young usually spend a lot of time in the company of their
parents.
Symbiosis includes mutualism, where two species engage in a mutually beneficial
relationship, a parasitic relationship is one in which one organism benefits at a another’s
expense, commensalism is where one organism benefits at no cost to the other.
A specie’s carrying capacity is the number of individuals of that species that its environment
can sustain. Populations above their carrying capacity risk exhausting resources, which could
cause die-offs.
Gross Primary Production is the total amount of chemical energy primary producers store in
an ecosystem. Net Primary Production is the total amount of energy stored by primary
producers after their metabolic processes (and thus available to be eaten by little bunny
rabbits and other primary consumers).
Competitive Exclusion Principle: If two or more species are competing for the same
resources in the same environment, one will gain an edge and dominate the other(s). The
losers will either go extinct or evolve to fill a different niche.
Keystone Species: A species that has a great influence on its environment. If it were to go
extinct, it would reduce biodiversity and have a profound change on its environment.
Species Richness is the number of different species in an environment. Species Evenness
relates to how many of each species live in an environment, and thus whether or not there
are dominating species or is each species has a healthy population.
10 List: Human Population
arth’s Carrying Capacity
World Population has been estimated to have exceeded 7 billion people
Carrying Capacity has been reached, and is being surpassed with exponential growth
3 Countries with most population: China, India, and USA
World Growth Rate is around 1.4% (84 million/year)
mportant Vocab
CBR- number of births per 1,000 people in 1 year
CDR- number of deaths per 1,000 people in 1 year
Total Fertility Rate- average number of births per woman over her lifetime
Replacement Level Fertility- number of births it takes per woman to replace the number of deaths
All of these variables as well as the life expectancy, infant mortality rate (only under age of 1) and child mortality rate (only under age o
s old) will depend on the environment, living conditions, population, size of country, and cultural norms.
mportant Equations
Population Change= (Births+immigration) - (Deaths+emigration)
Birth/Death rate are per 1,000 people, ZPG (zero pop growth) when births balance death
Global Pop Growth Rate= (CBR-CDR)/10
Natl Pop Growth Rate (Crude rate)= (CBR+imm) - (CDR+emi)/10
Natl Pop Growth Rate (Raw rates)=(((births+immi)-(deaths+emi))x100)/pop size
Rule of 70: 70/growth rate %= doubling time in years
ge structure diagrams—proportion of population in groupings of 5 years
Expansive/rapid growth- birth rate>death rate, pyramid shaped (Kenya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia)
Slow/zero growth- birth rate = death rate, rectangle shaped (Denmark, Austria, Italy)
Negative growth- birth rate<death rate, upside down pyramid, more elderly in developed countries (Japan, Germany)
Population momentum- many pre-productive individuals reach reproductive age
emographic Transitions
Stage 1: Slow or no growth, CBR = CDR
Stage 2: Rapid growth, CBR remains high but CDR declines due to improved sanitation/medicine/quality of life
Stage 3: Growth stabilizes; CBR and CDR decrease due to increased wealth and education
Stage 4: Negative growth, stable CDR but declining CBR
easons for trends
CDR dependent on: medicine, sanitation, nutrition, prenatal/neonatal care
CBR dependent on: cultural/religious practices, women’s rights, contraception availability, education, IMR, industrialization/developme
ase studies
U.S.- Near replacement rate, population continues to rise because of immigration. Will increase slowly
India- Family planning is ineffective; fertility is still 3.5. Will increase rapidly
China- One-child policy effective in slowing population growth. Will level off then decrease
nvironmental Impacts
The more people there are, the more resources are needed, (e.g. Deforestation, increased industrialized agriculture, industrialization,
ations of living conditions)
The more industrialized the environment, more pollutants from fossil fuels, mining, vehicles, human waste, increased sulphur pollution
ering of pH).
nvironmental Footprints
Developed countries have a higher footprint due to larger demand for natural resources, more fossil fuels to burn, more pollutants to litte
Impact = Population x Affluence (wealth) x Technology level
Major world regions according to population size
Present day: Asia, China, Africa, Latin America/Caribbean, Europe, North America, Oceania
2025: Asia, Africa, China, Europe, Latin America/Caribbean, North America, Oceania
2050: Asia, Africa, China, Latin America/Caribbean, Europe, North America, Oceania
Agriculture and Fisheries
Katie Walt and Jonathan Eber
1) Nutrition
 Malnutrition, undernutrition, overnutrition, food security
2) Types of Agriculture
 Industrial agriculture
 Plantation agriculture
 Traditional agriculture
 Subsistence (Slash and Burn) and Intensive
3) Soil
 Erosion, Salinization, Remediation, Desertification
 No/Low-till, terracing, contour plowing, polyculture, agroforestry, windbreaks/shelterbelts,
crop/grazing rotation
4) Inorganic vs Organic Fertilizers
 Pros and cons of each
 Runoff  cultural eutrophication
5) Irrigation
 Furrow, Flood, Spray, Drip
 Efficiency
6) Pest Management
 Selective breeding
 Genetic engineering
 Pesticides
 DDT (Silent Spring)
 LD-50
 Pesticide Resistance
 Biomagnification
 Biological pest control
 IPM
7) Green Revolutions
 Mechanization
 Fertilizers
 Monocropping
 Breeding
8) GMOS
 Increased profits, yield, and pest resistence
 Allergy concerns, biodiversity concerns
9) Animal Farming
 Factory farming
 Feedlots
 Aquaculture
10) Fisheries
 Fish farming, Fish ranching, Aquaculture
 Fishing
 Trawling, purse-seine, long line, drift net
FOSSIL FUELS
Types of Fossil Fuels
-COAL: Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel and there are four different types of Coal: Peat, Lignite, Bituminous and Anthracite (in
order of low to high heat content.)
-OIL: Crude Oil is a component of petroleum and is a liquid containing hydrocarbons. Types- Shale oil, oil sands
-NATURAL GAS: Natural gas consists mostly of methane. It is often found above reservoirs of crude oil.
Fracking
-Fracking (hydraulic fracturing) is a technique used to extract natural gas by fracturing rock with pressurized liquid
-Chemicals in water used in fracking are toxic and if done in porous rock these chemicals could contaminate groundwater. It uses a huge
amount of water and releases methane-a greenhouse gas
What Fossil Fuels are made out of
-Coal is formed by compression of dead plant material over time.
-Crude Oil is a component of petroleum that is generally formed from marine microorganisms under intense pressure and heat. It is
refined by being separated into various layers in a giant distillation column, which ultimately end up as products such as asphalt,
gasoline, and heating oil.
-Natural Gas is formed from the remains of aquatic microorganisms under pressure and even more intense heat than oil.
How Fossil Fuels act as an energy source
-Fossil Fuels are combusted in power plants in a furnace, which heats water into steam that turns a turbine to generate electricity.
Acts related to Fossil Fuels
-Alaska Lands Act passed in 1980 renamed ANWR and more than doubled its size.
Pollution caused by Fossil Fuels
-Coal Extraction has a high environmental impact because it releases large amounts of CO2 into the troposphere. It also releases S02,
N0x, Nitrate and Sulfate particulates, carbon ash and mercury during combustion and extraction.
-Burning oil for transportation accounts for 43% of the world’s carbon dioxide emissions. Crude and refined oil is also accidentally and
deliberately released into the ocean.
-Natural Gas is the “cleanest” fossil fuel, but it releases CO2 when burned and methane from leaks.
Fossil Fuel Case Study: ANWR
-ANWR (Arctic National Wildlife Range) was established in 1960 to preserve Alaska’s unique wildlife, wilderness and recreational
values.Today it includes nearly 20 million acres of land.
-Arctic Tundra is a fragile ecosystem and includes mostly specialized organisms that live there because of the harsh environment.
Therefore it is greatly impacted by human activities. It has low biodiversity and therefore is not a resilient ecosystem and impacts on
any one species may ripple down the food web.
-Drilling in ANWR may disrupt caribou migration routes and in turn disrupt native people’s way of life
Fossil Fuels on a global scale
-The United States has the largest coal reserves in the world (27%) with Russia (17%) and China (13%) in second and third.
-Most of the world’s oil reserves are in the 13 OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) Coutries (60% of the world’s
proven oil reserves).
-Russia and Iran have nearly half of the world’s reserves of conventional gas.
How Long Fossil Fuels Will Last
-Global reserves of natural gas are estimated to last between 62 and 125 years.
-Saudi Arabia could supply the world with oil for 10 years, ANWR for 7-25 months
-Coal reserves could last from hundreds to thousands of years.
Oil Spills
-Volatile organics, floating oil, heavy oil, and oil slicks on beaches harm marine organisms and lead to a decrease in biodiversity.
-Examples are the Exxon Valdez spill of 1989 in Prince William Sound, Alaska and the Deep Water Horizon Spill in the Gulf of
Mexico in 2010.
Jessie Stein and Max Condon
Renewable and Nondepletable Energies
Nondepletable Energy:
Nondepletables: solar energy, geothermal energy, wind power and water.
1. Geothermal energy:
a. Heat that comes from the natural radioactive decay of elements deep within the
earth
b. convection currents: in earths mantle bring magma toward the surface and heat
groundwater
c. geothermal energy: can be used directly as a source of heat and to generate
electricity
2. Ground Source heat pumps:
a. Using ground source heat pumps which use the high thermal inertia of the ground
b. They do not remove steam of hot water from the ground, they cycle fluid through
pipes buried underground
3. Wind Energy: the most rapidly growing source of electricity
a. Wind: winds are the result of unequal heating of Earth’s surface by the sun
b. Wind turbine: converts kinetic energy of moving air into electricity
c. Wind electricity produces no pollution and no greenhouse gases
Renewable Energy
1. Biomass Fuel:
a. Oldest form of fuel, provides 35% of fuel in developing countries
b. Only remains renewable if fuel is harvested correctly
c. Wood, charcoal, peat, and manure are all biomass fuels
2. Biodiesel
a. Diesel fuel made from vegetable oil
b. Government incentives for biodiesel created to decrease dependence on foreign oil
c. While biodiesel decreases CO2 emissions, it does compete with growing space for
food
3. Ethanol
a. Made from refined grain alcohol
b. Often mixed with different percentages of unleaded gasoline
c. While ethanol reduces emissions and boosts domestic production, currently it is
produced mostly from corn
Air Pollution and Climate Change
1. Primary air pollutant
a. CO2, CO (from incomplete combustion)
b. NO, NO2
c. SO2
d. Most hydrocarbons
e. Most suspended particulate matter
2. Secondary air pollutant
a. SO3
b. HNO3
c. H3SO4
d. H2O2
e. O3
f. PANs (peroxyacyl nitrates)
g. Most NO3 and SO423. Photochemical smog
4. Tropospheric ozone
a. Source: VOCs + NOx + UV + heat  O3
5. Montreal Protocol
a. Reduce CFC emissions by 35% between 1989 and 2000
6. Clean Air Act
a. EPA
b. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) covers
i. CO, NOx, SO2, particulate matter, ozone, and lead
c. Standards for HAPs (Hazardous Air Pollutants)
7. Positive feedback loops increase warming
a. Melting of polar sea ice
b. Melting of glaciers
c. Shorter winters in the tundra (methane release)
8. Negative feedback loops can temporarily slow warming
a. Forests – slow down global warming
9. Ocean acidification
a. Carbonic acid  H+ + carbonate
i. Carbonate binds with other carbonate to make bicarbonate
10. Kyoto Protocol
a. 38 developed countries signed except for USA and Australia
b. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, methane, N2O), to 5.2% below 1990 levels
by 2012
BIODIVERSITY: Levels, Threats, Conservation
Reasons for Biodiversity Loss (HIPPO): Habitat destruction & degradation (deforestation, loss of grassland,
commercial fishing, benthic habitat loss, erosion, eutrophication). Invasive species (non-native species, introduced
deliberately/accidentally, exponential growth, out-compete native species). Population growth in humans* (increase
in habitat fragmentation/degradation, pollution, resource use). Pollution (acid deposition, Superfund sites, litter,
pesticides, inorganic fertilizers, tropospheric ozone, cultural eutrophication, pollutant deposition and leaching, litter).
Overexploitation (hunting & commercial fishing).
Overfishing: 75% world’s commercially valuable fish species overfished. Bycatch (Sea mammals, birds, turtles
caught and thrown back). Tragedy of the Commons (resources widely available w/ no owner. “If I don’t take it,
someone else will”).
Fishing Techniques: Trawling 60% (Large net catch fish at bottom sea). Long-line (Deploy 100mi line w/ hooks
and leave in ocean). Drift Net, Gilnet (Long net deploy, hard for fish to see, fish gills get caught). Purse-seine (Use
spotter airplane, roundup fish + net tightened - like drawstring bag).
Acts: Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act 1976 (Council create fisheries fisheries
management plans + protects habitats). National Marine Sanctuaries Act (protects marine resources). United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (moratorium).
Species-level Regulatory Approaches: CITES: 1975 Convention on International Trade of Endangered SpeciesCITES(169 countries, lists 800 species that cannot be commercially traded, reviewed every three years) United
States Endangered Species Act - ESA (forbids federal agencies carry out/fund projects that would jeopardize an
endangered species,makes it illegal for Americans to engage in commerce associated with or hunt/kill/collect
endangered or threatened species, very controversial). Lacey Act (forbids the crossing of state borders with
live/dead/parts of animals without a federal permit). Migratory Bird Conservation Act & the Migratory Bird Treaty.
Clean Water Act (made the discharge of pollutants from a point source into navigable waters illegal).
Biodiversity Ecosystem Services: gas regulation, water purification, nutrient recycling, soil formation.
Ecosystems with higher biodiversity are more resilient and stable.
Species Diversity: Species richness-number of different species combined. Species evenness-the abundance of
individuals within species. Functional diversity-number of different species performing specific roles in the
community.
Greater Biodiversity=Greater Stability: Ecosystems with greater biodiversity are more stable because there is
more food, resources, and habitats.
Aquatic Acidification: This leads to decreased biodiversity because when the pH is lowered, then there are less
species in the ecosystem that can tolerate those levels. This comes from acid deposition from coal burning (sulfur
and nitrogen based). Industrial and mining discharge add to this from the cleaning of power plants and factories,
and also waste from mining, which is sulfuric acid that runs off to waterways.
Nature Reserves: Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer zones help protect biodiversity and can be
connected by corridors.