Using Computers to Support Learning
Academic Standards
Behaviorist-Oriented vs. Constructivist-Oriented
Approaches
Technology Integration Support
Workshop #2
Presented by:
NAU College of Education’s
Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers to Use Technology (PT3) Staff
Fall 2002
Using Computers to Support Learning Academic Standards:
Behaviorist-Oriented vs. Constructivist-Oriented Approaches
This workshop is designed to provide examples of a variety of different computer-supported
learning environments. The different instructional experiences presented are generally
categorized as “behaviorist-oriented” or “constructivist-oriented” based on the types of
strategies presented and contexts defined.
This workshop begins with an activity in which specific Arizona mathematics standards
(along with a corresponding assessment item) are presented. Workshop participants are
then provided with directions for accessing different types of learning experiences
(behaviorist-oriented as well as constructivist-oriented) that address the standards, and
they are encouraged to reflect on the strengths and limitations of each approach.
Following this activity, the workshop participants will be presented with specific computersupported examples of different types of learning contexts.
The following list delineates the different material presented within this resource packet:
Activity
Comparing behaviorist-oriented and constructivist-oriented computer-based
instructional experiences designed to facilitate the learning of a selected Arizona
mathematics standard
Information Resources

Comparing Behaviorist-Oriented and Constructivist-Oriented Instructional
Strategy Components

Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Strategies

A Sampler of Different Types of Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Models

Learning FROM Technology [Examples of Behaviorist-Oriented ComputerSupported Instructional Contexts]

Learning WITH Technology [Examples of Constructivist-Oriented ComputerSupported Instructional Contexts]

In-Class and Computer-Based Instructional Scaffolds

National [and Other] Standards Resources
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In-Class Activity Sample
This in-class activity sample is very simple. The box below presents a pair of related
Arizona K-12 content standards [high school mathematics] along with a corresponding AIMS
assessment item. After examining this information, follow the steps presented in the
“Behaviorist Approach” as well as the “Constructivist Approach” activity sections to access
Web-based material designed to help support the learning of the selected mathematics
standards. As you explore the different instructional approaches, record what you believe
are the individual strengths and limitations of each lesson, using the “Strengths &
Limitations of Observed Web-Based Instructional Contexts” chart to help you organize your
thoughts. Base your observations and judgments on how well you think the instructional
material could facilitate the learning of the specified standards. When you have completed
this task, compare your responses to those of others in the workshop.
Arizona Standards:
PO 2. Solve applied problems using angle and side length relationships*
PO 3. Solve applied problems using the Pythagorean theorem*
*Note: These outcomes include the condition “Given a sheet listing required
formulas…”
AIMS Assessment:
This sample was taken from the AIMS Mathematics Released Items (Core-Form A):
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Computer-Based Behaviorist Approach
Step One: Navigate to the following site:
http://www.thegateway.org
Step Two: Fill out the form as indicated in the picture below and click the “Search” button:
Step Three: From the search return list of lessons, choose the following two “behavioristoriented” approaches to learning the skills indicated within the selected
standard:
Pythagorean Puzzle
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/proof/puzzle/
A Picture Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem
http://www.utc.edu/~cpmawata/geom/geom7.htm
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Computer-Based Constructivist Approach
Step One: Navigate to the following site:
http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/bluewebn/
Step Two: Select the menu item “Projects” from the “Mathematics” content area:
Step Three: Select “Mr. Pitonyak’s Pyramid Puzzle for the list of projects (it’s near the
bottom). http://wcvt.com/~tiggr/
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Strengths & Limitations of Observed Web-Based Instructional Contexts
Standards the instructional samples support:
PO 2. Solve applied problems using angle and side length relationships
PO 3. Solve applied problems using the Pythagorean theorem
Type of Instructional Contexts Presented
Behaviorist-Oriented
Constructivist-Oriented
Strengths
Limitations
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Comparing Behaviorist-Oriented and Constructivist-Oriented
Instructional Strategy Components
Component (1)
Preinstructional
Activities
Behaviorist-Oriented
Instructional Strategies (2)
Motivate the learners (gain & maintain
attention)
Constructivist-Oriented
Instructional Strategies (3)
Establish a meaningful, purposeful
instructional context that encompasses
all instructional strategies
State goal(s) & objectives
Stimulate recall of prerequisites (i.e.
pretest, state necessary prerequisites,
etc.)
Initiate orienting activities in which the
purpose for personally engaging in the
instruction is clearly established
Early interactions within the
instructional context should facilitate
the setting of personal goals relative to
succeeding within the impending
instructional experience
Present a "Big Picture" that focuses
attention on the bigger conceptual,
intellectual, and/or social contexts in
which the current instructional goals
reside.
Implement strategies to help learners
identify in some way those skills,
knowledge, and attitudes (SKA) already
needed to succeed within the new
learning environment
Establish cooperative groups, and
communicate clearly-perceived learner
accountability, role(s) and task(s)
Establish clearly-perceived instructor
role(s) and learner support
mechanisms
Information
Presentation
Present information in a sequence that
is most appropriate for the type(s) of
skill(s) being facilitated
Present clear examples and
nonexamples
Clearly identify access to learning
scaffolds, especially procedural
scaffolds (guidance on how to utilize
resources and tools such as how-to
sheets, tutorials, and examples)
Additional learning scaffolds --conceptual, metacognitive, strategic --should be available when needed
(these may include “behavioristoriented” lessons designed to facilitate
specific skills)
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Learner
Participation
Provide practice over exact skills
indicated within objectives, with timely
feedback
Provide opportunities to explore the
overall learning environment with
minimal instructor guidance and
intervention……but make guidance
available to learners as they apply
information presented to the skills,
knowledge and attitudes being
facilitated
Practice over individual skills embedded
throughout the experience
Testing
Pretest & Posttest eliciting the exact
skills indicated within the objectives are
implemented
“Posttests” are generally represented
by the successful completion of
projects, with analytic rubrics provided
throughout the experience to guide the
learners toward success
FollowThrough
Activities
Remediation activities
Provide opportunities for learners to
summarize the key ideas emerging
from the learning experience. This
might include the generation of concept
or mind maps.
Enrichment activities
Memorization and “job aid” use
rehearsal
Transfer of learning by applying skills
within new situations
Provide opportunities for the learners
to reflect upon and articulate what they
learned and how they personally
learned it. This might involve
assessing their final projects using
analytic or holistic rubrics.
Provide opportunities for the learners
to identify how their newly-acquired
skills, knowledge and attitudes fit into
the "Big Picture" defined at the
beginning of the experience.
(1) These components are derived from the instructional design model described by Dick &
Carey (1996). This model is based on the behavioral and cognitive learning theories of
Robert Gagne (1992).
(2) For excellent information summarizing the main principles defining behaviorist learning
theories, see the summaries of Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner at Greg Kearsley’s
Theory into Practice Database [see http://tip.psychology.org].
(3) These strategies were culled from a variety of constructivist-oriented instructional
models. These models are described in more detail below.
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Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Strategies
Although there are many different ways to define constructivism, Jerome Bruner was the
one of the first to explore and define the concept as a viable theory of learning. The
following definition is taken from an entry in Greg Kearsley’s “Theory into Practice” database
(http://tip.psychology.org):
“A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active
process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their
current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs
hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so.
Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization
to experiences and allows the individual to ‘go beyond the information given.”
This description highlights the two fundamental elements of constructivism:
1) Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the
environment
2) Understanding is an adaptive process driven by learners’ need/desire to organize
their experiential world. Learners do no, and perhaps cannot discover an
independent pre-existing world outside their own mind.
In addition, most constructivist models include references to the important of social
interaction within the learning environment. Reiber (2000) summarized three primary
characteristics of learning within the constructivist paradigm:
1) Learning is an active and controllable process in which meaning is constructed by
each individual
2) Learning is also a social activity founded on collaboration and mutual respect of
different viewpoints
3) Learning is embedded in the building of artifacts that are shared and critiqued by
one's peers
Researchers and theorists investigating and defining constructivism have identified and
described some common characteristics of meaningful learning environments. In Jonassen,
Peck and Wilson’s text Learning With Technology: A Constructivist Perspective (1999, Merrill
Publishing), the authors include the following five categories representing necessary
components of meaningful learning environments. The descriptions of each category have
been elaborated upon using other constructivist models of design (for example,
Cunningham, Duffy and Knuth, 1993; Herrington & Oliver, 1997)
Opportunities for Authentic Learning: Instructional contexts are defined that
reflect the manner in which the outcomes to be learned are practiced in the real
world. This often includes ill-structured, real-world problems. In addition, the
instruction (teachers, other students, and/or educational media) facilitates the
learner’s evaluation of alternate strategies and methods for solving problems.
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Opportunities for Active Learning: The instructional context enables the learners to
explore and manipulate the components and parameters of their environment, and
observe the results of their activities.
Opportunities for Intentional Learning: The instruction provides the learners with
an opportunity to determine and set their own goals and manage/regulate their own
activities. Learners select the methods they feel will help them succeed within the
learning environment. The instruction provides coaching, modeling, and other forms
of support to facilitate the application of effective methods and strategies for
succeeding within the learning environment.
Opportunities for Constructive Learning: Instructional strategies are facilitated
that encourage learners to articulate what they have been learning and reflect upon
the importance and meaning of the outcomes in larger social and intellectual
contexts. Efforts should be made to enable learners to communicate their ideas
using any appropriate media: oral, written, graphic, video, etc.
Opportunities for Cooperative Learning: Instructional strategies are implemented
that enable learners to collaborate and socially negotiate their meanings of the
events and information presented within the learning experience between
themselves and other learners, outside experts, and the teacher. Access to expert
performances may also play an important role within the cooperative learning
environment.
So What?
Why is constructivism an important concept for teachers? One of the most important
reasons is that the principles of constructivism can be used to help define purposeful,
meaningful (and, consequently, highly effective) learning environments. What follows is a
sampling of different types of learning environments based on constructivist ideas:
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A Sampler of Different Types of Constructivist-Oriented
Instructional Models
Model
Problem-Based
(Inquiry)
Learning
Situated
Learning
Anchored
Instruction
Case-Based
Learning
Cognitive
Apprenticeship
Generative
Learning
Description
As the name implies, instruction based on this particular model
presents learners with a problem (or they uncover a problem within an
exploratory activity), and the quest for a solution drives the learning
experience. Problem-based learning is an important characteristic
within most “constructivist” instructional models.
Instruction based on the Situated Learning model (Herrington &
Oliver, 1997) generally include all or most of the following elements:
 Provide an authentic context that reflects the way the knowledge
will be used in real-life
 Provide authentic activities
 Provide access to expert performances and the modeling of
processes
 Provide multiple roles and perspectives
 Support collaborative construction of knowledge
 Promote reflection to enable abstractions to be formed
 Promote articulation to enable tacit knowledge to be made explicit
 Provide coaching and scaffolding at critical times
Provide for integrated assessment of learning within the tasks.
The two fundamental aspects of instruction based on the “anchored
instruction” model include:
1. Activities should be designed around a conceptual "anchor" which
should be some sort of case-study or problem situation.
2. Curriculum materials should allow exploration by the learner
(e.g., interactive computer programs).
Case-based instruction focuses on “cases,” either real or contrived.
Initial information presented to the learners define the case itself, and
free access to potentially useful ancillary information surrounding the
case is made available to the learners. Also referred to as “situation
exploration,” student interaction with the case material doesn’t alter
the case itself (like a simulation might)
Cognitive apprenticeship instructional models (Brown, Collins &
Duguid, 1989) involve establishing a relationship between the learner
and a mediated support system. This support system, which might
include a highly-interactive computer-based environment or structured
collaborative group, generally includes the following strategies:
- situated learning
- modeling
- explaining
- coaching
- reflection
- articulation
- exploration
A more general type of instructional model than those previously
described, generative learning represents any type of learning
environment in which learner exploration leads to the generation of
problems, information, patterns, and/or solutions. Proponents of
generative learning (like proponents of the grounded approach to
qualitative research) criticize prescriptive ISD solutions for essentially
eliminating the importance of learner constructions in the instructional
process.
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Discovery
Learning
Open Learning
Environments
Like many of the context types described above, Discovery Learning
emphasizes complete immersion into situations where learners have
no choice but to discover problems, patterns, and solutions en route to
successfully negotiating the situation. Learner support within the
situation can range from gentle, subtle peer or teacher coaching to
more overtly direct information presentation when appropriate.
Open Learning Environments (Hannafin, Land & Oliver, 1999)
represent instructional situations where divergent thinking and
multiple perspectives are valued over a single "correct" perspective.
OLE’s are appropriate when the learners are presented with ill-defined,
and ill-structured problems.
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Learning FROM Technology
Examples of Behaviorist-Oriented Computer-Supported Instructional Contexts
The information in the chart below presents three of the more common instructional support
contexts established by computers within typical classroom learning environments: linear
information presentation, tutorial, and drill and practice. These context types are referred
to as support because they only address a small (but important) portion of the overall
instructional strategies needed to maximize the probability that all learners in a class will
learn specific outcomes. They are also referred to as scaffolds because they can help
individual learners meet specific needs on their way to accomplishing a bigger (and more
meaningful) instructional goal. Distinguishing between “meaningful” instructional contexts
and support or scaffold contexts is important because it helps define the potential value of
computers within the instructional design process. The contexts represented below are
valuable, but only if they are used WITHIN meaningful contexts…they don’t define
meaningful contexts themselves. The problem is, these context types reflect the more
traditional uses of computers in the classroom. Information presentation, tutorials, and drill
and practice programs do have a place within some learning environments, but they could
never, and should never, be used as the only means of trying to facilitate targeted
outcomes.
Context
Type
Tutorial
(Direct
Instruction)
Context
Description
This context type
generally
presents "new"
information
(usually in a
linear or
stepwise
format), and
either provides a
certain degree of
practice using
the information
in some way, or
applies the SKA
to specific
example(s).
Web-Based Examples
Computer-Based Courseware
Check out the math courseware in each of these three
popular courseware products…they represent classic
examples of tutorials:
www.plato.com
www.compasslearning.com,
http://www.ncslearn.com/successmaker/
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Office Tutorials
These tutorials are used to help students and teachers
quickly learn how to use the Microsoft Office
applications. They are part of the Teaching and
Learning with Microsoft program, which is a worthwhile
free program designed to help educators learn how to
integrate technology (Microsoft technology, that is) into
their practice.
http://www.microsoft.com/education/?ID=Tutorials
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Linear
Information
Presentation
(no-practice
tutorial)
This context
type simply
provides the
learners with the
linear
presentation of
information
(“instructions”)
and examples.
That’s it.
Developing Scales
http://trochim.cornell.edu/kb/scalgen.htm
This site is part of an on-line textbook that presents
concepts in measurement and statistics. The link takes
you to a page that displays information about how to
develop scales (which may come in handy if you need to
develop a rubric for evaluating instruction).
********************
Theory Into Practice (TIP) Database
http://tip.psychology.org/
This very useful website presents information over a
variety of instructional and educational theories. No
practice, no review, no assessment, no context. Just
good, well organized information.
Drill &
Practice
Generally, this
type of
environment
does not present
"new"
information, but
provides practice
and feedback
over specific
skills (often
knowledge,
defined concepts
and rules).
Reading Blaster (Ages 7-8)
www.education.com/blaster/RB7-8demo.shtml
This is one of the popular titles in the “Blaster” series of
math, reading and language arts drill & practice
programs. You can play a demo of this program on-line.
Shockwave will install automatically of you don’t already
have it as a browser plug-in. And if you need help
figuring it out, try to ask an 8-year-old for help (hint:
the longer you hold the mouse down, the more power is
applied to the ball shooter).
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Learning WITH Technology
Examples of Constructivist-Oriented Instructional Contexts
Context
Type
Context
Description
Creation
This type of
context
provides
opportunities
for learners to
create
something.
Web-Based Examples
Note: Most of the descriptions were obtained directly from the
Websites.
ThinkQuest
http://www.thinkquest.org/library/winners.html
The ThinkQuest Internet Challenge is an international
program for students ages 12 through 19. This challenge
encourages students to use the Internet to create
information-rich Web-based educational tools and materials.
Students form teams with their colleagues from around the
world and are mentored by teachers or other adult coaches.
In the running for scholarships and awards totaling more than
$1 million, student participants learn collaboration, leadership
and critical thinking skills that help raise their level of
education and technological expertise.
********************
WebQuest
http://www.kn.pacbell.com/ssi_includes/webquests.html
A WebQuest presents students with a challenging task,
scenario, or problem to solve. The best topics include issues
that are under dispute or that offer multiple perspectives.
Current events, controversial social and environmental topics
work well. Students begin by learning some common
background knowledge, then divide into groups. Each
student or pair of students has a particular role, task, or
perspective to master. They effectively become experts on
one aspect of a topic. Students must synthesize their learning
by completing a summarizing act such as e-mailing
congressional representatives or presenting their
interpretation to the world.
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Real/
Simulation
These context
types allow
learners to
make
decisions in
the
development
and/or
subsequent
operation of a
real or
simulated
environment
or situation.
Simulations
often try to
replicate realworld
environments.
Lego Mindstorms
http://mindstorms.lego.com/community/missions/mission.asp
“We are going to start you out on one of the more routine
missions that we do with our unmanned Robotic Cargo
Vehicles (RCV's.) This will help you get familiarized with our
standard operating procedures and let you test your skills
before we get to the heavier stuff. However, make no
mistake, this will be a little tricky to pull off - so pay
attention!
We have a crew of geologists studying glacial movement in
the Arctic. These men and women are highly mobile, taking
scientific readings on the ground and checking for shifts in the
ice flow across a diverse and often hostile terrain. To keep
safe - and alive - they have to travel light and maintain a fast
pace.
We try to fly in supplies to them on a weekly basis, but the
weather has often grounded the planes and held up the
team's ability to move. We want to start using our new RCV's
fitted for cold weather travel to deliver supplies and
equipment to our crews during bad conditions. You mission is
to use your RIS 2.0 set to design, build, and program a
simulation of an Arctic RCV supply mission. Follow the
directions in the Mission Brief and Checklist and you will get a
sense of the challenges we're facing out there.”
ThinkerTools
http://thinkertools.berkeley.edu:7019/
ThinkerTools is a Newtonian force and motion simulation
environment for the Macintosh. The ThinkerTools curriculum
scaffolds scientific inquiry using both simulated and "realworld" experiments.
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Situation
Exploration,
CaseBased,
Story
Situation
explorations
and cases don’t
allow the
learners to
control
parameters of
the
environment,
but they can
freely explore
within a
simulated or
real
environment or
situation.
These types of
contexts are
often "problem
solving" in
nature.
Story contexts
present stories
(fiction or nonfiction), and
story elements
such as
characters,
plot, setting,
and conflict
might be used
as “anchors” or
themes to help
facilitate
specific,
discrete
outcomes.
Non-fiction
story elements,
such as
collected and
tabulated data,
reflect elements
of cases that
are often used
to help facilitate
the learning of
specific
outcomes as
well.
Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series
http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/ctrs/lsi/morejw.htm
The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury consists of 12 videodisc-based
story adventures (plus video based analogs, extensions and
teaching tips) that focus on mathematical problem finding and
problem solving. Each adventure is designed from the perspective
of the standards recommended by the National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics (NCTM). In particular, each adventure provides
multiple opportunities for problem solving, reasoning,
communication and making connections to other areas such as
science, social studies, literature and history (NCTM, 1989; 1991).
********************
The JASON Project
http://www.jasonproject.org/
The JASON Project offers students and teachers in grades 4
through 9 a comprehensive, multimedia approach to enhance
teaching and learning in science, technology, math, geography, and
associated disciplines. The project delivers its educational content
through a print curriculum, videos, fully interactive Internet
programming, and live satellite "telepresence" broadcasts in which
students become part of real global explorations.
********************
ID Case Event: Chronicles of Rocketboy
http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/ITcases/Chronicles/
This “case event” represents an imaginary case study in which a
newly-educated instructional designer takes a job at a California
company that provides computer-based special effects for film
companies. The ID problems to be solved, as well viable solutions,
are embedded within the case itself. This case was designed to
help instruct (and assess) instructional design skills.
********************
BioQuest Cases
http://www.bioquest.org/case99.html
Resources for using complex, open-ended problems are presented
as narrative cases to initiate student-centered investigation in
biology are provided for classroom use.
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Research
Problems
Reference
Exploration
Games
In this context
type, research
problems
(problems
associated with
a specific
content
domain) are
presented to
the learners,
and they must
use computerbased
resources to
help solve the
problems.
This context
type allows the
learner to
freely explore
and access
reference-type
information.
This type of
context usually
engages
learners in
competition,
cooperation,
puzzles, or
strategies,
often for the
sake of
entertainment.
Other contexts
may employ
this context to
because of the
motivational
advantages of
games.
Clear View Charter School Science Program
http://glef.org/
(type “Introducing Project Based Learning Clear View” into
the search engine)
Clear View Charter School was originally featured in the
George Lucas Educational Foundation's 1997 documentary
film, Learn & Live. The original 23-minute video story
follows teacher Jim Dieckmann's 4th/5th grade class as
they research insects, create multimedia reports, and
prepare questions to pose to entomologists at San Diego
State University. Then, through a two-way fiber-optic
connection to the University, students and scientists look at
insect body parts together using an electron microscope.
The interaction with experts helps Albert and Charles
deepen their understanding of the scientific process.
NASA On-Line Resources
http://education.nasa.gov/multimedia.html
Although the entire Internet could fall into the reference
exploration category, the NASA on-line resources represent
a good example of a more specific body of knowledge that
is accessible via the web. At this site, learners can explore
images, sounds, movies, and other information related to
the exploration and study of space.
SimCity Classic On-Line
http://simcity.ea.com/us/guide/
SimCity is a simulation program in which the user designs a
city and then turns it loose to see if its population grows,
thrives, and ultimately survives the many different
challenges introduced (like natural disasters, disease etc.).
Although this could be classified as a simulation, the link
above will allow you to play an on-line version of SimCity
on which you compete against other users to try and keep a
city “alive.”
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Storytelling
“BigPicture”
Concept
Mapping
This type of
context
encourages
learners to
construct and
communicate
fiction and
nonfiction
stories. This
context types is
presented
separately from
“creation”
contexts simply
because the act
of storytelling
falls
somewhere inbetween
creation and
communication.
This context
type
encourages the
learners to
create
conceptual “Big
Pictures” that
represent the
scope of
particular
content
domains.
Stories.com
http://www.stories.com
This Web site enables users to create a free account and
post a story.
********************
Blogger.com
http://www.blogger.com
The word “blog” represents the abbreviated form of “Web
log.” A Web log is a Web site designed to communicate
information in diary fashion by presenting text and picture
posts according to the day they were posted. Blogger.com
allows users to create free accounts and develop easilyupdatable “blogs” within minutes!
Inspiration
http://www.inspiration.com/vlearning/index.cfm
Inspiration is a software tool designed to help learners
construct concept maps or “mind maps” depicting their
understanding of a particular issue or topic. This
Inspiration site presents background information on the
benefits of concept mapping, and it portrays a good
sampling of different types and applications of concept
maps creating with the Inspiration software.
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Discussions
Discussion
contexts are
simply
environments
in which a
moderator
presents or
facilitates the
articulation of
topics to be
discussed by
the learners.
Kidlink
http://www.kidlink.org/
Kidlink is a non-profit grassroots organization working to
help children through the secondary school level be
involved in a global dialog. The work is supported by 83
public mailing lists for conferencing, a private network for
Real-Time Interactions (like chats), an online art exhibition
site, and volunteers living throughout the world. Most of
our volunteers are teachers and parents. Since the start on
May 25, 1990, over 175,000 kids from 137 countries on all
continents have participated. Their primary means of
communication is electronic mail (email), but Real-Time
Interactions (like "chats"), various types of web-based
dialogs, ordinary mail, fax, video conferencing, and ham
radio are also being used.
********************
Knowledge Forum
http://www.learn.motion.com/lim/kf/kf3info1.html
Knowledge Forum 3.0 allows users to create a knowledgebuilding community. Each community creates their own
database in which they can store notes, connect ideas, and
"rise-above" previous thinking. The note-taking, searching,
and organizational features of this sophisticated tool allow
any type of community to build knowledge. If your goals
are building your community knowledge then Knowledge
Forum is the application for you. Users start with an empty
database to which they submit ideas, share information,
reorganize the knowledge, and ultimately "rise-above" to
new understandings. Knowledge Forum makes information
accessible with multiple vantage points and multiple entry
points. Even the collection and display of the community's
work can be organized in flexible visual displays. Your work
is not limited to your individual organization; if desired, you
can become part of a larger community and work in concert
on related problems.
This type of tool could probably be used within any of the
different context types presented in this table, but it is
being included in the “Discussion” section because its
principle feature is to promote the sharing of ideas between
learners.
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In-Class and Computer-Based Instructional Scaffolds
Scaffold
Type
Procedural
Description
Guidance on
how to
utilize
resources
and tools
Common In-Class
Examples
Computer-Based
Examples
How-To Sheets
Guided Tours
Tutors
Maps and Overview
Diagrams
Introductory remarks and
examples from the
instructor
Tables of Content
Search Engines
Tutorials
Conceptual
Metacognitive
Guidance on
what to
consider
throughout
the learning
experience
Benchmark lesson(s)
facilitated by an instructor
Guidance on
how to think
about the
problem(s)
under study
Individual Mentoring
Study Questions
Moderated chat experiences
Moderated discussion
groups
Advance Organizers
Peer Tutoring
Teacher Modeling
Planning scaffolds allow
students to set goals and
objectives, chart
benchmarks and deadlines
for projects, create concept
maps, etc.
Regulating scaffolds allow
students to monitor their
progress and receive
feedback on their
performance (i.e., online
quizzing, interactive practice
exercises, etc.)
Strategic
Guidance on
approaches
to solving
problems
Small Group
Mini-Lessons
Evaluating scaffolds allow
students to critique one
another's work, exchange
documents to-from the
instructor for revising, etc.
Open Chats
Open Discussion groups and
forums
Textbook Assignments
NAU College of Education - Technology Integration Workshop #2 – Fall 2002
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National [& Other] Standards Resources
http://pt3.nau.edu/resources/workshops/wkshp1/standards_menu.htm
Language Arts
National Council of Teachers of English
http://www.ncte.org/standards/thelist.html
Arts
National Standards for Art Education
http://artsedge.kennedycenter.org/professional_resources/standards/natstandards/index.html
Information Problem Solving
Big Six Skills for Information Problem Solving by Michael Eisenberg & Bob Berkowitz
http://www.big6.com
Science
Projec2061: Benchmarks for Scientific Literacy
American Association for the Advancement of Science
http://www.project2061.org/tools/benchol/bolframe.htm
National Science Education Standards
http://www.nap.edu/html/nses/html/ http://www.nap.edu/html/nses/html/
Mathematics
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
http://standards.nctm.org/
History
National Center for History in the School’s National Standards for History
Basic Edition (1996)
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/nchs/standards/
Geography
National Geographic’s 18 Geography Standards
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/resources/ngo/education/standardslist.html
Nutrition
United States Department of Agriculture’s Dietary Guidelines for Americans
http://www.dga2000training.usda.gov/
Social Studies
National Council for the Social Studies
http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/toc.html
Technology
National Educational Technology Standards (NETS)
International Society for Technology in Education
http://cnets.iste.org
Thinking and Reasoning
Thinking and Reasoning Standards
Mid-Continent Regional Educational Laboratory
http://www.mcrel.org/compendium/Standard.asp?SubjectID=21
Working with Others
Working with Others Standards
Mid-Continent Regional Educational Laboratory
http://www.mcrel.org/compendium/Standard.asp?SubjectID=22
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References
Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, S. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of
learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.
Hannafin, M; Land, S. & Oliver, K. (1999). Open Learning Environments:
Foundations, Methods, and Models. In Instructional-Design Theories and Models: Volume II.
Reigeluth, C. (Ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Herrington, J. & Oliver, R. (1997). Multimedia, magic and the way students respond
to a situated learning environment. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 13(2),
127-143.
Jonassen, D. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new
philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research & Development, 39(3), 5-14.
Papert, S. (1991). Situating constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.),
Constructionism, (pp. 1-11). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Rieber, L.P. (2000). The Studio Experience: Educational reform in instructional
technology. Brown, D.G. Best Practices in Computer Enhanced Teaching and Learning (pp.
195-196). Winston-Salem, NC: Wake Forest Press.
Thorndike, E. (1932). The Fundamentals of Learning. New York: Teachers College
Press.
Note: Much of the information presented within the “context type” table above was
presented in Greg Kearsley’s Theory Into Practice Database. (http://tip.psychology.org).
This is an excellent resource for anybody interested in comparing instructional theories,
strategies, and ideas.
There are also links to some interesting articles related to constructivism at the following
sites:
http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/Publications/index.html
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/constructivism.html
…And here are some links to information on scaffolding:
http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/interface/help.html
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/people/bdodge/scaffolding.html
http://www.indiana.edu/~idtheory/chapter_6_summary.html
http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/edis771/webquest2000/student/ssusandigiac/s
caffold.htm
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About the PT3 Program at NAU…
The Preparing Tomorrow’s Teachers to Use Technology (PT3) program at NAU is a federallyfunded initiative that is administered through the Arizona K-12 Center. This program is
committed to helping education faculty integrate technology into their professional
practices. Offering individual technology mentoring and support, helping with course
redesign efforts, and providing technology resources represent the primary ways in which
the PT3 staff can help with technology integration efforts during the Fall 2002 semester.
Currently, the PT3 staff at NAU includes two full-time personnel. Greg Sherman is an
instructional technologist, specializing in the development of computer-supported
instructional strategies to facilitate learning within a broad range of contexts. Paul Alley is
an educational media developer, specializing in the creation of interactive Web-based
material. Greg and Paul are housed in Room 178 of the education building.
Contact information for NAU’s PT3 program:
NAU’s PT3 Website :
http://pt3.nau.edu
Greg Sherman’s Contact Info:
greg.sherman@nau.edu
3-9415
Paul Alley’s Contact Info:
paul.alley@nau.edu
3-9434
An on-line version of this document can be found at:
http://pt3.nau.edu/resources/workshops/
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