Science and Epistemology
Science is a process of gathering data, testing hypotheses, and formulating theories about the world.
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that asks the question "how do we know what we think we
know?"
Although science is sometimes presented as a "truth machine"--it really is nothing of the sort. Although
identifiable steps and stages can be identified, the process of doing science is not always step by step and
methodical. Sometimes it moves by tiny discoveries and at other times by great leaps of understanding.
The main components of science epistemology are: direct observation (experiment) and reason
(including math).
Science has a few inviolate rules, they are:
1) Science assumes (unless discovered otherwise) that the principles and constants observed in our
world, operate in the entire universe.
2) Science assumes that any reported phenomenon must be repeateable. If the same conditions prevail,
the same result is expected. Unique phenomena may be beyond the reach of science. When an experiment
is reported, it must be able to be repeated. Things that really only happen once -- are difficult or impossible
to study by science. Thus history can studied with the techniques of science, but science cannot answer a
question like "What if Elvis sang Opera?"
3) Science works by applying Ockham's Razor. This is the principle, first cogently proposed by William of
Ockham in (1347), that given two explanations for an observation that seem comparable in other regards,
the explanantion that is most simple is the most likely to be correct. This effectively rules out the invoking of
invisible agents in an explanation unless there is no other reasonable way. In his own words: "Entities
should not be posited unnecessarily."
4) Any proposal of fact must be able to be falsified. Science does not work by "proving" hypotheses and
theories, it works by collecting and applying information to discard ideas. What is left is taken as provisional
truth. Proofs are possible in mathematics, but mathematics and logic are viewed as helpful tools, but not as
truth per se. The mathematics of Newton's world is perfectly cogent, it's just that the (whole) world doesn't fit
the mathematics.
5) Truth itself is recognized as a provisional description of the universe that can change as time unfolds
and new insights become understood. It is recognized that science is a cultural process and the history of
science is ripe with science and scientists acting out political and social agendas.
The Logic of Science
Science utilizes logic in many ways, some important types of logical reasoning are widely used in science
and must be understood from the beginning.
Induction - is the name of reasoning that proceeds from the particular fact or observation to a general
conclusion. Example: I met a perosn from Yreka. She was nice. I think all people from Yreka are nice.
Deduction - is the name of the reasoning that proceeds from a general principle (or conclusion) to the
particular case at hand. Example: I heard that all the people from Redding are "stuck up." I just met a
person from Redding. I bet she is "stuck up."
Reasoning by Analogy - is the name of the reasoning process whereby something that is presumably
already understood stands as a model for reasoning about something less well understood.
Reductionism (atomism) - is the name of one fruitful approach in science where things are studied by
identifying the parts. That is, by "reducing" a complex system to a group of interacting parts.
Holism - is the name of the approach where the system is studied as whole (as opposed to reductionism)
and where it is recognized that systems sometimes have "emergent properties" which are not found when
the parts are studied independently. This approach is used in complex systems. For example, the concepts
of "ecosystem" and "organism" are often approach in a "holistic" way.
A Note on these methods of logic.
It is true that all of the above approaches can yield good results or incorrenct results. Employing these
logical methods does not necessarily lead to truth. Both induction and deduction play a critical role in
science. Typically a cycle is started like this:
1) an observation leads to a general conclusion (induction).
2) the general conclusion is used to predict other cases (deduction).
3) experiments are performed that try to falsify the predictions.
4) the new observations/experiments lead to a modified conclusion (induction) and the process repeats.
When something is repeated, we call the repeat an iteration. Science is a constantly iterative process.
Methods of Science
Science utilizes many type of methods of inquiry, but the most notable method is the empirical
(experimental) method. This implies a testing of a hypothesis, typically including a "control" group and an
"experimental" group with double or triple blind provisions.
If a hypothesis is tested repeatedly and cannot be falsified, the hypothesis is said to be "validated." A
theory is a higher order of generalization and is composed of many connecting hypotheses. If all (or most)
of the hypotheses of a theory are validated, the theory is also said to be "validated." At that point, the theory
becomes provisional truth.
Important Tangential Points
The distinction between science and technology.
Science is a process whereby provisional truth is established. Technology is the social history of the
application of the scientific principles of knowledge (with or without the knowledge).
The distinction between science and pseudoscience.
Pseudoscience refers to many claims and belief systems that purportedly use the methods of science to
establish their conclusions, but in fact are not testable and are, therefore, not science. Typically
pseudosciences have conclusions that are assumed to be true and then "facts" are collected in an effort to
"prove" the claims.
Can science ever discover the "supernatural?"
There is a criticism of science that basically goes "if science rules out the supernatural, it will never be able
to discover the supernatural." At first glance this might seem like a fair criticism, but it is not. Science doesn't
"rule out" anything for study. Each claim of the supernatural must be held to the same rule as all claims:
What experiment (or series of experiments) could falsify the claim?
If there are none, then the claim is simply considered "unscientific."
Scientists and Science are not the same thing.
We must remember that scientists are people who "do" science. That is completely different than saying
that scientists are people that only believe or accept scientific "truth." Everyone accepts "truths" that are not
scientific. Some scientists apply their scientific views to matters of religion and politics, others do not.