>>> AS PHILOSOPHY.
MOD 3: PSYCHOLOGY + RELIGION<<<.
INTRODUCTION
The psychological study of religion examines the relationship between the human mind and
religious belief. Instead of attempting to prove or disprove the existence of God, psychologists
ask instead: ‘’What makes people religious?”
Examining the mental processes involved in religion, the conclusions drawn can be potentially
very threatening to religious faith. Rather than concluding that there is a God who objectively exists
in reality, they conclude that, under certain circumstances, the brain is stimulated into a
religious outlook.
o Freud and Jung, who you will be studying, propose that that the God worshipped by believers
is first and foremost a construct of the human mind.
o The stimulus, or impulse towards being religious can be emotionally, socially or physically based.
However, these psychologists don’t necessarily assert that God cannot exist.
o What they claim is that religious belief can be explained without requiring God,
o And that the primary reason why people adopt a religion is because their psychological
structure encourages them to.
On this course we will be studying two important pioneering psychologists:

SIGMUND FREUD (1856–1939) – An Austrian neurologist who broke important ground in
psychology through his method of psychoanalysis, discovery of the unconscious part of the
mind, and his exploration of different kinds of human drives. Freud still holds much influence,
though mostly over literary theory due to the speculative, yet insightful, nature of his work.

CARL JUNG (1875-1961) – A Swiss psychiatrist who, once mentored by Freud, departed
from his views and conceived of a collective unconsciousness that contains archetypes – the
source of our impulses, which are shared by all humans. Jung still carries much influence in
psychology as his analytic approach developed psychoanalytic methods that are still useful
today.
Freud and Jung were good friends between 1906-1913. However, they later fell out as they held
massively differing views on both psychology and religion. The study of each psychologist will
constitute the two major parts of this course.
FOR YOUR JANUARY EXAM YOU NEED TO BE ABLE TO:
This Module constitutes Question 3 of the January exam paper. Make sure you have explored
the taught material from various angles, that way you will be prepared to answer any kind of
question the examiner might ask. That’s the point of the varied homework essay questions
that you will be set this term. By January you should be able to:




Write an essay explaining Freud’s psychological understanding of religion.
Write an essay explaining Jung’s psychological understanding of religion.
Be able to critically assess Freud and Jung’s theories: this means being able to pitch
criticisms of their theories against the strengths of their theories.
Be able to compare and contrast the two different theories from Freud and Jung
SUMMARY OF FREUD AND JUNG’S DIFFERENT THEORIES OF RELIGION
FREUD
Religion is a neurosis that helps us deal with:
1. Inner Psychological Conflict
o Religion is a collective neurosis.
o It stems from the unconscious mind
o It results from incompletely repressed
traumatic memories
o The trauma is invariably sexual in nature
o Therefore religion is an illusion resulting
from sexual difficulties
2. The conflict between our natures and
civilisation
o Society’s need for structure conflicts with
our individual freedom.
o Religion helps us to deal with this conflict
through hope and sublimation.
3. Helplessness and fear of natural forces
o Fear of natural forces
o God as ultimate father figure to protect us
Freud’s Conclusion: The Illusion of Religion
should be Rejected
o It is not beneficial to society
o It is not beneficial morally
JUNG
Religion is a natural psychological impulse
that helps us deal with neurosis
1. The Key Concepts of Jung’s Theory
o Jung’s Concept of Mind: Consciousness,
Personal Unconsciousness, Collective
Unconsciousness
o Theory of Archetypes: the source of our
impulses
o How Neurosis Occurs: psychic imbalance
o The Process of Individuation:
2. The Religious Implications of Jung’s
Theory
o God as an Archetype: image of wholeness
o The Role of Religion in the Process of
Individuation: wholeness as helping us to
become psychically balanced
Jung’s Conclusion: The Impulse to Religion
helps us to overcome neurosis
o It helps to keep us psychically balanced
o We are more likely to develop mental
illness if we do not embrace religion.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FREUD AND JUNG’S VIEW ON RELIGION
o
o
o
o
FREUD
JUNG
LIBIDO AS A DRIVE FOR SATISFACTION
Freud uses this as a basis for why religion, as
with all other neuroses are sexual in nature.
Freud argues that the highly sexual Oedipus
Complex is the trauma that results in the
neurosis of religion.
LIBIDO AS AN UNDIFFERENTIATED LIFE-FORCE
o Jung rejects the notion that the libido is
exclusively about satisfaction and desire – sexual
appetite is just an expression of the general force.
o This is important as it means Jung rejects the
notion of the Oedipus Complex is at the basis of
religion.
RELIGION AS NEUROSIS
Freud argues that religion is a neurosis – a
psychological disorder (mental illness).
Religion as a neurosis that arises as a defence
mechanism of the mind when repressed
traumas re-emerge.
RELIGION AS DANGEROUS TO HUMANITY
Freud argues that religion should be rejected
because it is not beneficial to either society or
morality.
o History has shown that religion does not ensure
order in society, and it has also been used for
immoral purposes such as oppression.
o
o
o
o
o
RELIGION AS CURE FOR NEUROSIS
Jung does not think religion is an actual neurosis.
Jung thinks that the religious impulse humans
have is an impulse towards becoming psychically
balance (mentally healthy) and, as such, is vital
for the process of individuation.
RELIGION AS BENEFICIAL TO HUMANITY
Jung argues that the impulse towards religion is
natural and belongs to all humans as it comes
from the collective unconscious.
Religion is vitally important to the process of
individuation – without a sense of spirituality we
are more likely to suffer neuroses.
>>> PART ONE<<<.
>>> SIGMUND FREUD <<<.
.PSYCHOLOGY + RELIGION..
>>>
SIGMUND FREUD
<<<.
INTRODUCTION
Freud’s psychological understanding of religion is that it is an illusion based on ‘wish fulfilment’.
o Wish fulfilment is the concept that: in certain circumstances, the human mind will create beliefs and
images to satisfy its most basic longings and desires.
o By referring to religion as an ‘illusion’ he did not mean that religion is necessarily false or that there
can be no God, but that our impulse to be religious arises in order to answer the inner needs of
the person.
Religion is an illusion as it is not grounded in any hard evidence (e.g. empirical / observational evidence
of the existence of God) that would support its claims. Freud argues that practically all of the features of
religion – including the apparent evidence in its favour, such as arguments for the existence of God –
can be explained in terms of the mind’s wish fulfilment.
Religion is an illusion based on human wishes. Specifically, religion is a neurosis (a psychological
disorder / mental illness) created by the mind to help us overcome three main issues:
o Inner psychological conflict
o The conflict between our natures and civilisation
o Fear of the dangers of the natural world
.
What you will be learning about Freud’s psychological view of religion:
Religion is a Neurosis (a mental illness) that helps us to overcome:
1. Inner Psychological Conflict
o Religion is a collective neurosis.
o It stems from the unconscious mind
o It results from incompletely repressed traumatic memories
o The trauma is invariably sexual in nature
o Therefore religion is an illusion resulting from sexual difficulties
2. The conflict between our natures and civilisation
o Society’s need for structure conflicts with our individual freedom.
o Religion helps us to deal with this conflict through hope and sublimation.
3. Helplessness and fear of natural forces
o Fear of natural forces
o God as ultimate father figure to protect us
4. Freud’s Conclusion: The Illusion of Religion should be Rejected
o It is not beneficial to society
o It is not beneficial morally
You will also be learning:
5. Criticisms of Freud’s Theory (for answering ‘B’ questions)
o Challenge to the historical and anthropological evidence regarding the primal horde
o Challenge to the psychological evidence regarding the Oedipus complex
o Freud’s dependence on a narrow selection of evidence
o An unjustifiably negative view of religion
1. RELIGION AS A NEUROSIS THAT HELPS US TO OVERCOME:
INNER PSYCHOLOGICAL CONFLICT
This first section constitutes the major part of Freud’s psychological understanding of religion. In
short, Freud believed that the construction of the mind and the development of the human personality
led to deep inner conflicts, invariably sexual in nature. The mind’s solution to such trauma is to lock it
away in the unconscious mind. Such ‘locking away’ is unsuccessful, And the trauma re-emerges later
in the form of religion.
A summary of his main argument is as follows:
1. Religion is a collective neurosis.
2. It stems from the unconscious mind
3. It results from incompletely repressed traumatic memories
4. The trauma is invariably sexual in nature
5. Therefore religion is an illusion resulting from sexual difficulties
We will now explore each of these points in detail…
1. RELIGION IS A COLLECTIVE NEUROSIS

NEUROSIS – is a psychological disturbance, or mental illness, that involves physical symptoms like
pain, compulsive behaviour etc. But any such symptom has no actual physical cause – they are
rooted in the mind.
As a collective neurosis, religion is a neurotic illness that afflicts ALL people. Freud is suggesting
that all human beings have a universal impulse towards the religious. We are all inclined to believe or
conceive in some notion of a divine entity (God).
2. RELIGION, AS NEUROSIS, STEMS FROM THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND
Freud’s concept of the Psyche (the mind)

CONSCIOUS MIND – Where we actively make decisions and choices,
reflect and think. Such thoughts are based on the sensory experience we
perceive, i.e. the things we see, hear, smell, touch, taste. These thoughts
are directly accessible, as are the memories we are able to recall.

UNCONSCIOUS MIND – A vast store containing basic drives, natural
impulses such as that to breath and to desire, as well as forgotten
memories. These memories are not directly accessible.
Freud’s work with patients suffering from hysteria led him to the idea that there were unconscious
parts of the mind, which we cannot normally access, along with the conscious mind. Freud’s work on
hypnosis and his studies of dreams led him to realise that the unconscious mind comprises a vast
store of information about events that we consider long forgotten, but is actually repressed.

REPRESSION – when unwanted or taboo thoughts, desires, fears and anxieties are banished into
the unconscious.
From his work with patients suffering from hysteria he demonstrated that traumas (unpleasant memories)
that are repressed (or trapped) in the unconscious can re-surface later in the form of hysterical
behaviour.
o This often takes the form of obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCD), such as compulsive handwashing, the compulsion to keep switching a light on and off, etc.
3. RELIGION RESULTS FROM INCOMPLETELY REPRESSED TRAUMATIC MEMORIES
From his observation of hysterical patients, Freud not only discovered the unconscious mind, but also
noticed a link to religious behaviour.
o Freud noticed close similarities between the behaviour of his patients in relation to the source of
their obsession and that of religious people in relation to the object of their worship.
o For example, both hysteria and religious practice involve highly specific ritual behaviour.
In both cases, this behaviour is filled with symbolic meaning for its followers, while at the same time
it appears completely meaningless to the uninitiated. In both cases, failure to perform a particular act
results in severe guilt, which is inexplicable to others, and in both cases the object of attention is
regarded with ambivalence (specifically, a love/hate relationship).

AMBIVALENCE – uncertainty or fluctuation, caused by inability to make a choice or by a
simultaneous desire to say or do two opposite or conflicting things.
From this Freud concluded that religion was a form of neurotic behaviour, caused, as in the case
of the other hysterias, by traumas buried deep within the psyche.
4. THE TRAUMA THAT CAUSES RELIGION IS SEXUAL IN NATURE
The central, and most startling, feature of Freud’s argument was that it was a sexual trauma that
causes the neurosis of religion:
o ‘At the bottom of every case of hysteria there are one or more occurrences of premature sexual
experience, occurrences which belong to the earliest years of childhood.’
This was because, for Freud, the sexual drive, or libido, was the body’s most basic urge and, as such,
the one most capable of causing psychological problems within the development of the individual.

(FREUD’S) THE LIBIDO – the psyche’s drive to achieve satisfaction. It includes the sexual drive.
The libido involves far more than the desire to have sex. It represents the body’s general, subconscious
desire (arising from the unconscious, yet affecting our consciousness) for satisfaction.
However, the trauma that lies behind neurotic behaviour results from the problems in the sexual
development of the child. This major trauma is what Freud refers to as ‘the Oedipus Complex’.
THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX: THE TRAUMA THAT CAUSES THE NEUROSIS OF RELIGION
The Oedipus Complex is as follows:
o The suckling child is used to having its mother’s sole attention during the early years of
breastfeeding.
o But when the libido is transferred to the sexual organ during puberty, there is already a rival to the
child.
o This rival for the mother’s affection is the father.
o The father is viewed with ambivalence: The acute feeling of jealousy and hatred combine with the
respect and fear previously felt for the father.
The desire to possess the mother and the ambivalence towards the father is the Oedipus complex
Freud goes on to say that ‘In the conditions of our civilisation it is invariably doomed to a frightening
end.’
o What he means by this is that since incest is taboo (deemed unacceptable by society).
o As a result, the child represses the conflict deep into the unconscious mind.
However the mechanism of repression is only partially effective.
o While the repressed event or desire may appear to be long forgotten, the mind continues to struggle
to prevent it from re-emerging into the conscious.
o As a result of the conflict, the event is channelled out in the form of neurotic symptoms.
o One of these symptoms is religion: the ‘universal obsessional neurosis of mankind’.
TASK: Summarise the Oedipus Complex by answering the questions below
o
What is the body’s most basic urge (desire) and what is its source?
o
Where does the tension between the child and the father arise?
o
Where does the child repress this conflict?
o
How does the conflict re-emerge?
SUPPORT FOR FREUD’S THEORY OF RELIGION AS COLLECTIVE NEUROSIS
Two things need to be established for his theory to work:
1) That the Oedipus complex is a universal sexual trauma
2) That buried trauma can reappear in the form (or is the cause) of religion.
1) WHY RELIGION IS THE ‘UNIVERSAL OBSESSIONAL NEUROSIS OF MANKIND’.
Freud speculated on the work of Charles Darwin to assert the idea that in primitive societies, the social
unit was something called a primitive horde.

PRIMITIVE HORDES – groups of people arranged around a single dominant male who had total
authority over the group and held claim over all the females. Over time, the resentments of the
younger males grew, until they grouped together to kill him.
Hence ambivalent feelings were held towards the dominant male – hatred on the one hand
combined with the veneration (profound reverence, respect) on the other.
The strength of these feelings was so great that the father became idolised and transformed into
the totem of the group.
Freud uses this notion of the primitive hordes as evidence that the Oedipus complex is not simply a
personal trauma, but one that has affected all society at a historical level.
o It explains why religion is universal and why the concept of God is such a powerful one (since it
stems from a historical experience that still affects us).
o Freud also believed in some kind of psychological mechanism whereby guilt for the original crime
is passed on genetically.
Hence religion is a collective neurosis: the ‘universal obsessional neurosis of mankind’.
2) HOW DOES RELIGION RESULT FROM SEXUAL GUILT?
This is the development of neurosis, such as religion occurs as a defence mechanism of the mind:
o Freud claimed the natural reaction of the psyche was to control feelings of guilt by transferring it
away from itself and on to surrounding objects and people.
o And he found it evident that such transference once commonly concerned animals, and then Gods.
Freud provided five major case studies to illustrate the effects of the Oedipus Complex. One of
them, ‘The Wolf Man’, concerned a young man, Sergei Pankejeff, who had a phobia of animals.
After much hypnosis, Freud traced the phobia back to a time when the young Pankejeff witnessed
sexual acts between his parents. Freud reasoned that over time, the repressed trauma resulted in
the fear of wolves and of God.
Animism: The first stage of the development
When suffering from extreme guilt, the mind’s defence mechanism is
to create idols (or totems):
o This involves investing stones, trees or animals with spirits.
By redirecting the feelings of guilt on to the idol the mind can make
amends through prayer and sacrifice, for example.
o The mind is therefore able to control the feelings of guilt.
In effect, the idol or totem is a transformation of the father.
Drawing from the historical support of the primal horde, Freud observed that as veneration of the father
grew, the veneration was transferred from the father figure to a totem animal .
o The totem became the symbol of identity of the group, while the ambivalence remained.
o For while it was generally forbidden to harm the animal in any way, once a year there would be a
ritual killing and eating of the totem animal.
Religion: The second stage of the development
As time passed the animist emphasis on the totem proved unsatisfactory. As longing for the father grew
so did his reputation. Eventually he took on divine significance and became transformed into the
gods of religion.
The ambivalence to the original father remains in religion:
o A favourite example concerned the Christian God who is venerated and
treated with great respect by his followers.
o Every Sunday, however, he is ceremonially killed and eaten in the
Communion feast; where worshippers drink the blood of Christ (as
wine) and eat his body (as bread).
o Its worth noting that many believers treat this Communion literally. That
the wine and bread transubstantiates into the blood and body of Christ.
This example of Communion provides an exact link with the animist killing of the totem.
5. RELIGION IS, THEREFORE, AN ILLUSION RESULTING FROM SEXUAL DIFFICULTIES
Religion is therefore a neurosis: an illusion created by the mind to help us come to terms with powerfully
ambivalent emotions suffered during sexual development. It is a means of resolving this inner conflict:
o The trauma of wishing to obtain our mothers and to kill our fathers (the Oedipus Complex) is
repressed into our unconscious.
o However, the trauma re-emerges into our regular consciousness.
o We feel guilt for wanting to commit these taboo acts (that will never be accepted by society).
o And so as a defence mechanism we develop a neurosis which allows us transfer our guilt onto
other objects, i.e. the invented Gods of religion.
o These Gods take the place of the father and we are able to express our hidden desires through
them – we get to express our ambivalent feelings towards the father by venerating him
(worshipping God), yet also sacrificing him (e.g. Holy Communion).
TASK: Draw a poster / comic strip depicting the transition from the animists to religion.
Cover each major stage:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The primal horde / father figure
Animist / sacrifice of the totem
From animals to the Divine / God figure
Sacrifice in religion / Holy Communion
There two other reasons why Freud thinks the mind created the illusion of religion:
2. RELIGION AS AN ILLUSION TO OVERCOME
THE CONFLICT BETWEEN OUR NATURES AND CIVILISATION
Freud demonstrated how the nature of our society is at conflict with our most basic desires. We have
seen one such conflict, in the form of the Oedipal desire to the kill the father and possess the mother. If
such conflicts were unbridled, society would not be able to operate. Society necessarily requires
restrictions on our freedom in order to work (this is the notion that if we were free to do anything there
would be no safety, no security).
Society depends on structure and order; those who have responsibility to govern must have
authority and this will inevitably conflict with the desires of each individual.
The essential point is that religion provides a reason to submit to authority.
o It explains our suffering in terms of the need to obey an omnipotent God.
o It promises reward for suffering in the afterlife and makes society bearable.
Religion provides the necessary motivation for the sublimation (transforming)
of unacceptable sexual drives into more socially and personally acceptable
channels.
o The most natural outlet being forbidden, it forces our libidos into other areas.
o It also provides the believer the ample scope for sublimation in fields such as
religious art, music or charity work.
Charity worker as inherent pervert^^
3. RELIGION AS AN ILLUSION TO HELP US OVERCOME
OUR FEAR OF NATURAL FORCES
Freud’s final point is that the natural human response to being confronted by natural forces – including
death – is one of panic and helplessness at our defencelessness and solitude.
Religion helps by creating the belief that the natural forces are no longer impersonal and that we are no
longer powerless for through religious devotion we believe we can control them.
As Freud puts it, religious belief proposes a world where:
‘Everything that happens in the world is an expression of the intentions of an
intelligence superior to us, which in the end, though its ways and byways are difficult
to follow, orders everything for the best – that is, it makes it enjoyable for us.’
Religious belief is a reaction against helplessness in the face of natural forces:
o It provides for the adult a father who can protect just as the father
protected the child.
o To the ‘strange, superior’ powers of nature, the adult ‘lends… the
features belonging to the figure of his father; he creates for
himself the gods’.
o Religion fulfils our wishes for someone to look after us in a
harsh world.
o For God is the ultimate ideal of a father, being all-loving, allpowerful and totally dependable, giving people the confidence that
the future is safe in his hand.
4, FREUD’S CONCLUSION:
THE ILLUSION OF RELIGION SHOULD BE REJECTED
Freud does not provide any logical proof against the possibility of religion, he himself admitted that his
arguments prove nothing since God could exist objectively anyway. In other words, his theory does
not directly challenge the existence of an actual God.
In practice, however, he pointed out that beliefs that are derived from basic psychological needs
turn out to be false.
o For example, the beliefs of obsessional neaurotics invariably have no grounding in fact.
o Freud therefore argued that in the absence of any other evidence for religion, we are justified in
concluding that it is false.
He goes on to support a complete rejection of all things religious.
To explore this point, in his book, “The Future of an Illusion”, Freud considers two points his critics might
make on the importance of religion:
1. First, without religion, civilisation would turn to anarchy.
 ‘If men are taught that there is no almighty and all-just God, no divine world order and no
future life, they will feel exempt from all obligation to obey the precepts of civilisation.
Everyone will follow his asocial egoistical instincts… and chaos will come again.’
2. Depriving people of religion seems needlessly cruel:
 ‘Countless people find their one consolation in religious doctrines and can only bear life with
their help.’
Q. Do you agree with these points?
Freud’s reply:
1. Yes, religion has performed ‘great services for civilisation’.
BUT religion is ultimately NOT beneficial to SOCIETY:
It would be better to replace religion with a scientific, rational understanding of the world.
o This would make people more willing to obey the demands of civilisation, because they would
see them as being for their own personal good. (Further, History has shown that religion does not
prevent people from rebelling against the restrictions of society.)
o It is possible that humans can be educated to make their unruly passions subservient to their wills.
2. If religion were entirely positive, it would indeed be cruel to deprive people of it, illusion though it
may be.
BUT… religion is NOT in fact beneficial to MORALITY:
o Religion has all too often been used as a tool against the oppressed, to keep them oppressed.
o Many believers abuse religion for their own purposes, to justify social immoralities.
 e.g. penance, where we make up for our sins through prayer: ‘One sinned, and then one
made a sacrifice and then one was free to sin once more.’
Freud concluded that we have been ‘over-rating its necessity for mankind’, and that the pain of
removing religion would be more justified by the benefits.
Q. Would society be better without religion?
5. CRITICISMS OF FREUD’S THEORY
(FOR ANSWERING ‘B’ QUESTIONS)
This final part of this section is critical information that assesses Freud’s psychological theory
of religion. You MUST know these challenges in order to answer the ‘B’ question in the exam.
CHALLENGE TO THE
HISTORICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL
EVIDENCE REGARDING THE PRIMAL HORDE
The whole theory of the horde was based on Darwin’s mere speculations.
o It is no longer accepted that people were grouped exclusively in hordes.
o Now more likely that there was a greater variety in the way people were grouped.
o Not all societies had totem objects, whom they worshipped, and there is no evidence for the
ambivalent attitude towards the totems which was demonstrated by the totem meal.
o The British Anthropologist E.E. Evans-Pritchard (1902-73) doubts the totem meal ever happened.
o The idea that guilt is handed down from generation to generation has likewise been
discredited.
This means the primal crime never happened and could not transmit guilt even if it did.
o So this damages Freud’s claim that religion is guilt-based, since the major source of guilt never
occurred.
o It also weakens the ‘Oedipus Complex’ theory, since the primal crime was an important
illustration of its effect on society.
Q. How strongly do you think this criticism has challenged Freud’s ‘Oedipus Complex’?
CHALLENGE TO THE
PSYCHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE REGARDING THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX
The major critic of the Oedipus complex is MALINOWSKI, in his book ‘Sex and Repression’.
Remember, Freud needed two things for the ‘Oedipus Complex’ to be universal:
1. the complex had to be universal for it to be the cause of religion
2. needed to be caused by our natures for it to precede religion and be the cause of it.
Malinowski’s attack on these two necessities of Freud’s theory:
1. The Trobriand race, where the role of the father is that of a weak nurse. So there is no evidence
of the complex in this race. Their religion, therefore, must have originated not in the Oedipus
Complex but elsewhere.
2. Looking at the animal world, he found nothing inherent in the nature of animals that could cause
such a complex. The role of both father and mother is one of support.
Malinski argued instead the Oedipus Complex is caused by the strict rules of religion – rather
than being the cause of them.
o Sexual guilt is not the cause of religion. Instead, religion is the cause of sexual guilt.
o It is the moral laws of religion that makes some sexual acts taboo.
So Freud’s attack upon religion does not contain the force that it was once believed to have.
A NARROW SELECTION OF EVIDENCE
Freud’s theories relied on the importance of the father figure, which is developed by the mind into
the male God of Judaism or Christianity.
They therefore failed to take account:
o Religions based upon female deities (e.g. Egyptian Isis cult)
o Religions which do not have any single dominant object of
worship (Buddhism)
o Societies such as the Trobriand race, where the father played an
insignificant role in the development of the child. No tensions with the
father, required by the Oedipus complex, occurs here.
Freud can therefore be criticised for:
o Constructing a theory to explain ONLY the societies and religions
with which he was familiar, and ignoring those of others.
o The way in which he generalised the results of his five case studies (‘The Wolf Man’ and
friends), assuming that the Oedipus complex detected in those cases was in fact at work
everywhere.
His methodology has resulted in a narrow selection of evidence that cannot be used to justify a
universal theory that is supposed to be applied to all humans in all societies.
AN UNJUSTIFIABLY NEGATIVE VIEW OF RELIGION
A final criticism is that Freud is unjustified in claiming that religion should be rejected completely.
1. RELIGION MAY NOT BE FACTUAL, BUT IT IS BENEFICIAL IN THE SAME WAY AS ART
The British psychoanalyst, Donald WINNICOTT argued:
o Religion is an essential buffer between the mind and external reality.
o Religion is useful as it helps humans adapt to their environment by providing a source of comfort
and familiarity.
o The role and value of religion are similar therefore to those of art and music.
2. RELIGION AND SCIENCE ARE BOTH ILLUSIONS – UNACCEPTABLE TO ARGUE FOR ONE
OVER THE OTHER
Ana-Maria RIZZUTO argued:
o Religion is no more an illusion than science.
o Both disciplines require us to interpret data and impose order on the world.
o Freud’s assumption that science has the sole claim to the truth is therefore unacceptable.
o Rather than removing the illusion of religion, Freud had replaced religion with another illusion.
Do you agree with the defences of religion given above?
H/W QUESTION: (b) Should religion be rejected? (15 marks)
o
o
The PRO points that positively support this claim will consist in Freud’s actual theory, the CON
points that challenge this claim will consist in the above criticisms.
Make sure your conflict points (PRO vs CON) are precise by following the aspect of Jung’s theory
with the relevant criticism.
>>> PART TWO <<<.
>>>
CARL JUNG
<<<
.PSYCHOLOGY + RELIGION..
>>>
CARL JUNG
<<<.
INTRODUCTION
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and Carl Jung (1875-1961) were good friends between 1906-1913 (below
is a picture of them playing pool during a break on an American lecture tour!). However they later fell out
as they held massively differing views on both psychology and religion. You will be learning about both
psychologists on this course, though this section is all about Jung’s theory of psychology and religion.
What you will be learning about Jung’s psychological view of religion:
1. The Key Concepts of Jung’s Theory
o Jung’s Concept of Mind: The Three Types of Consciousness
o Theory of Archetypes
o How Neurosis Occurs
o The Process of Individuation
2. The Religious Implications of Jung’s Theory
o God as an Archetype
o The Role of Religion in the Process of Individuation
o The Existence of God
3. Criticisms of Jung’s Theory (for answering ‘B’ questions)
o Challenge to Jung’s theory of Archetypes
o Challenge to Jung’s concept of Religious Experience
o Challenge to the role of Religion within Individuation
And it is also important to note where Jung’s theory differs from Freud’s:
Jung agreed that religion was a psychological phenomenon, but he objected to Freud’s conclusions:
 That religion is a neurotic illness caused by sexual trauma
 And religion is a dangerous entity, to be exposed and overthrown.
Jung replaced Freud’s conclusions with the following observations:
 Religion is a natural process that stems from the archetypes within the unconscious mind
 It performs the function of harmonising the psyche
 As such, religion is a beneficial phenomenon
 The removal of religion would lead to psychological problems
You might have to identify these differences in exam questions, so make sure you know them.
1. THE KEY CONCEPTS OF JUNG’S THEORY
JUNG’S CONCEPT OF MIND:
THE THREE TYPES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
1. CONSCIOUSNESS – THE EGO
o
o
o
o
This is our regular consciousness.
Where we actively make decisions and
choices, reflect and think.
Such thoughts are based on the sensory
experience we perceive, i.e. the things we see,
hear, smell, touch, taste.
These thoughts are directly accessible, as are
the memories we are able to recall.
^^^ Basic structure of the mind ^^^
2. PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS – UNDERLYING THOUGHTS, FEELINGS, URGES
Below the level of the conscious mind, is what Freud would call the unconscious, but what Jung calls
the “personal unconscious.”
The personal unconscious consists of:
o Our thoughts, feelings, urges and other information that is difficult to bring to consciousness.
o Experiences that do not reach consciousness, experiences that do not coincide with who we think
we are,
o and things that have become “repressed” would make up the material at this level.
The material in the personal unconscious is not directly accessible, but it has gotten there sometime
during our lifetime. Material in the personal unconscious has been environmentally determined.
o E.g. on your way to college you probably experienced hundreds of different images and sounds, yet
only noticed the ones that were relevant to you (e.g. train times on the electronic board) – but all the
other sensory things (e.g. adverts, ‘no smoking’ signs) is still remembered by your mind, in your
personal unconscious.
o The contents of the personal unconscious can be accessed through: hypnosis, guided imagery, and
especially dreams.
TASKS:
o
o
Try doing some automatic writing: this is like doodling, but with words, don’t think about what
you want to say, just think of a topic and write whatever naturally comes to mind.
Play a word association game: Start with one word, your friend will say whatever words come to
mind in response, and then you do the same; repeat.
The point of these tasks: is that you will be uncovering the contents of your personal unconscious –
the things that you don’t actively think about, but nevertheless reside in your mind.
3. THE COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS – INHERITED AND COMMON TO ALL HUMANITY
The collective unconscious is the oldest part of the mind and is inherited.
o Unlike personal unconsciousness, which is environmentally determined, the collective unconscious
is inherited.
o We inherit, as part of our humanity, a collective unconscious; the mind is pre-figured by evolution
just as is the body. The individual is linked to the past of the whole species and the long stretch of
evolution of the organism. Jung thus placed the psyche within the evolutionary process.
o It’s like eye color. If someone were to ask you, “How did you get your eye color,” you would have to
say that there was no choice involved – conscious or unconscious. You inherited it.
The material in the collective unconscious consists of psychological archetypes.
o The word “archetype” comes from the Greek “arche” meaning “first, and “type” meaning “imprint or
pattern.”
o Thus, psychological archetypes are inherited ideas: first prints, or patterns, that form the
basic blueprint for major dynamic counterparts of the human personality.
o Each one of us is born with this ability, and tendency, to conceive similar kinds of primordial (first,
basic principles) ideas and images which are created by archetypes.
<<< This a more complex diagram of Jung’s
model of the mind.
Notice how:
o The SELF is located in the COLLECTIVE
UNCONSCIOUS, where the ARCHETYPES exist
o
COMPLEXES / NEUROSES – exist in the
PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS, and are related to
/ arise from the ARCHETYPES
o
The EGO is in our regular CONSCIOUSNESS
and the COMPLEXES / NEUROSES are not
directly accessible to it.
TASK: WRITE A SUMMARY OF THE THREE PARTS OF JUNG’S CONCEPT OF MIND
1. CONSCIOUSNESS
2. PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS
3. COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS
JUNG’S THEORY OF ARCHETYPES
Jung noted how people who were dreaming, or suffering from psychic disorders were often preoccupied with
similar ideas and images.
o It was to account for the similarities in mental images that Jung came up with the division of the
unconscious mind; dividing it into the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.
o And he identified the source of the similarities as that of ‘archetypes’ within the collective unconscious

ARCHETYPE: the part of the psyche that creates primordial images.
For Jung, archetypes:
o Pre-exist in the collective unconscious of humanity.
o They repeat themselves eternally in the psyches of human beings
o And they determine how we both perceive and behave.
o These patterns are inborn within us. They are part of our inheritance as human beings.
o One effect of this tendency is that similar images will be produced in dreams
Archetypes are the source of the ideas, or images that is inherited; rather than the ideas themselves.
o The mind contains structures which, when combined with the knowledge gained through our
experiences, construct uniform images.
o We don’t inherited ideas, but instead inherit a functional disposition to produce the same, or
very similar, ideas.
o This is why when we use a dream dictionary and we consider ideas such as falling, in each of our
dreams a different individual (image drawn from experience) is falling (image drawn from the archetype)
The collective unconscious means, therefore, that many of our ideas will be shared with other
people. Here are some examples of such shared archetypes:
The Persona: the tendency to put up a front to cover our true natures, for the benefit of society.
o The word ‘persona’ or ‘person’ comes from a Latin word for ‘mask’ – so the persona is the mask you
put on before you show yourself to the outside world. Such a mask could be a ‘good impression’ of
what is expected of us by others, or it could be a ‘false impression’ to manipulate other people’s
opinions and behaviour. Sometimes the persona can be mistaken, even by ourselves, for our true
nature, causing us to believe we really are what we pretend to be.
o In dreams, the persona may manifest itself in images of ourselves trapped inside a heavy coat of
armour, or appearing at a party in disguise.
The Shadow: this guides the disposition to portray the darker sides of our characters.
o In dreams, the shadow may reveal itself in the form of personifications of evil; for example, Satan,
monsters or even a mother-in-law!
o As we move deeper into the dark side of our personality personal identity begins to be lost and
individuals experience the chaos of getting closer to the material structure of psychic life.
o This is commonly found in the image of woods or wildernesses.
The Animus: represents the masculine side of the female
o The animus may appear as an exotic, sensual, young man, or as an old grouch, heroes or wise men.
The Anima: the feminine side of the male.
o May appear as an exotic dancing girl, or a weathered old hag, goddesses, seductresses and
fictional heroines
Both the animus and anima represent the psyche’s
tendency to express its opposite sexual side. The forms
of the images generally reflect either the condition or the
needs of our soul presently.
The Kubrick film ‘Eyes Wide Shut’ (1999) is a dream-like fantasy set
in New York, which appears to draw on all four of these archetypes
HOW NEUROSIS (MENTAL ILLNESS) OCCURS
Now we have considered Jung’s concept of mind in some detail, we can address how he thinks neurosis occurs.
There are three important key terms here:

(JUNG’S) THE LIBIDO: the source of psychic energy. An undifferentiated life-force.

PSYCHIC ENERGY: is the psychological energy by which the work of the personality is performed.

NEUROSIS: a psychological disorder. Such mental illness is caused by being psychically imbalanced.
By studying schizophrenic patients, Jung concluded that the libido was something more complicated than a mere
drive for satisfaction, sexual or otherwise (which was what Freud suggested). The patients’ complete loss of selfawareness suggested neurosis is far more reaching a problem than that concerning repressed desires. Instead,
the libido is the cause of neuroses that affect the whole personality.
How neuroses occur:
o The libido is the source of psychic energy. It is an undifferentiated (not exclusively sexual) ‘life force’.
o Psychic energy is our psychological energy, that which makes the mind work.
o Jung claimed neurosis arises from being psychically imbalanced.
o In other words, we become mentally ill when the psychic energy is not flowing as well as it could.
o To maintain mental health, all of the features of the personality need to be balanced, so that the psychic
energy flows properly.
o There needs to be a balance between the conscious mind and the unconscious.
o And there also needs to be a balance among the different archetypes.
It is the failure to maintain this balance that causes mental disorder / neurotic illness.
o Someone who has, for example, an excess of mental energy concentrated upon the unconscious will
appear to be detached from their surroundings, since they will chiefly be aware of the images generated by
the unconscious. This is the case with schizophrenics.
REJECTION OF FREUD: LIBIDO AS MORE THAN A SEXUAL DRIVE
Jung rejected Freud’s view that neuroses were caused by repressed sexuality.
 This is because although schizophrenia was a neurosis, it had no obvious sexual component.
 And the complete loss of self-awareness suffered is something far greater than mere sexual disturbance.
Further, Jung concluded that religion, as another ‘neurosis’, in no way depended upon a sexual trauma.
 This is because Jung was also unconvinced that the suckling of a baby was a sexual act,
 Meaning Jung also rejected Freud’s Oedipus Complex.
THE PROCESS OF INDIVIDUATION
Jung argued that the balance of the libido and the ensuring mental health of the individual are governed by an
innate process that he terms individuation.

INDIVIDUATION: a spontaneous process that involves ‘becoming one’s own self’.
By this, Jung meant that individuation, or figuring out who you yourself really are, results in a psychically
balanced personality, through the integration of the various archetypes into the conscious personality.
This is the process of individuation:
o There are two main phases in a person’s life:
1) The first part of a person’s life involves a coming to terms with the outer environment with its
challenges – through work, friendships, and relationships.
2) The emphasis in the second part, from middle age onwards, is to come to terms with one’s own
personality.
o Faced with declining opportunities, energies and possible health, the individual must find new purpose and
meaning in life through assimilating into one’s conscious mind the numerous unconscious
components.
o E.g. nowadays we often see this take the form of a mid-life crisis, when a middle aged person tries to retain
their youth, usually by buying a flashy sports car! The point is, such a person is trying to become psychically
balanced when faced with the loss of youth.
o An acceptance of the various parts of the personality is all part of the individuation process; these are the
things we need to consider when defining ourselves as our own person changes.
Although ultimately beneficial, this process of individuation can be difficult, for it involves accepting parts of one’s
personality that one may prefer to leave undiscovered.
2. THE RELIGIOUS IMPLICATIONS OF JUNG’S PSYCHOLOGY
GOD AS AN ARCHETYPE
Our images of god are themselves archetypal.
o The God concept is one of these primordial images (an archetype).
o Each of us is born with the tendency to generate religious images of gods,
angels and other religious phenomena.
o The same principles apply here as with other archetypes:
 The actual, specific, images that we have of God (e.g. the image on
the right) are picked up throughout our own experiences in the world.
 However, the disposition to generate them is innate (with us since
birth). This means that as humans our psychological make-up means
we are inclined to produce images of God.
Example case studies linking archetypal images to religion:
1. Miss Miller dreamt of a moth’s desire for light
o Jung said this parallel between God and light can be found in countless religious traditions.
o E.g. The Aztec preoccupation with the Sun and the Christian view of Jesus as ‘Light of the World’.
2. A male schizophrenic’s delusion that if he stared at the sun with half-closed eyes he would see that the
sun had an erect phallus and that this organ was the origin of the wind.
o Jung argued this patient was too poorly educated to have been aware of an ancient Greek religious text
describing an almost identical vision.
According to Jung, these case studies show a spontaneous occurrence of the same themes in the
dreams, hallucinations and delusions of unsophisticated patients, who would never have encountered
such themes in waking life. Hence, he argued such religious images were primordial images
derived from this collective unconscious.
ALL ARCHETYPES ARE ‘RELIGIOUS’ (as in ‘NUMINOUS’)
Any images or thoughts that are derived from the archetypes can be considered to be religious:
o This is because Jung redefines religious thought as ‘the numinous’.
o Jung’s definitions of the words religion and religious rely upon Rudolf Otto’s understanding of the
religious or numinous experience.
According to OTTO, a numinous experience is:
o A "non-sensory experience or feeling whose primary and immediate object is outside the self"
o In other words, a religious experience affects our consciousness, and is caused by something
external to our consciousness.
Similarly, JUNG argued, in ‘Psychology and Religion’ that:
o The numinosum is a religious experience that is always ‘due to a cause external to the
individual’, independent of the person’s will (active thought).
o ‘The numinosum is either a quality belonging to a visible object, or the influence of an invisible
presence, that causes a peculiar alteration of the consciousness’ (the religious experience).
Because of this understanding of religion as the numinous:
o Any experience which is archetypal in origin can be classed as religious
o This is because such an experience:
 involves an archetype which is an invisible presence, independent of the subject’s will
(since it resides in the collective unconsciousness, rather than the regular consciousness),
 which causes the required alteration of the regular consciousness (our active thought).
All archetypal images are ineffable; own actual images are just approximations:
o As with the traditional religious concept of God, Jung affirmed that, along with the images generated
by all the other archetypes, God is ineffable (incapable of being expressed, indescribable or
unutterable), since He comes from a part of the mind about which nothing concrete may be known.
o The specific images of God that we produce are only approximations of the archetypal idea of God.
THE ROLE OF RELIGION
IN THE PROCESS OF INDIVIDUATION
The individuation process helps us to be psychically balanced. How does this link with religion?
INDIVIDUATION AS A RELIGIOUS PROCESS:
Here, there are two important reasons Jung gave for individuation being a religious process:
1) The ‘SELF’ ARCHETYPE guides and controls the innate process of individuation.
o
o
o
This is because the Self is the innate disposition to become whole (or unified as a person).
We have already seen that, upon Jung’s understanding of religious experience as numinous, any
process or attitude that is governed by archetypes may be termed religious.
So upon this basis, individuation is a religious process.
2) The second, and stronger, basis for associating religion with individuation: to aid the process of
individuation, the Self archetype generates IMAGES OF WHOLENESS.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
The most famous example of these images is the mandala (the images below).
The Mandala (literally meaning 'circle') is a perfectly balanced circle, geometric in design, often
symmetrical, whose centre is emphasised. This design is traditionally understood to represent
balance and wholeness.
Throughout the world, in various religions, mandalas remain the most graphic symbols ever
invented to denote order and harmony of the enlightened mind.
Another major example, however, is the religious images of God.
This is because the image, or idea / concept, of God that believers adhere to is essentially the
same as the mandalas: perfect and whole.
Hence the traits such as omnipotence, omniscience, omnibenevolence – God is perfection.
In other words, the images of God are also created by the Self archetype.
A great example that combines these two notions of mandalas and images of God is Islamic art:
since it is non-figurative (no images of prophets or God is drawn) Islamic artists instead use symmetry
to represent the wholeness / perfection of God, and repetitive patterns to show his eternality.
RELIGIOUS IMAGES ARE BENEFICIAL TO OUR MENTAL HEALTH
Because the images produced by the Self archetype are perfect and whole, just like the image of God
that believers adhere to, Jung argues that images of God are beneficial to our mental health.
o The religious images are used by the mind to individuate the personality.
o It is through religious images that the personality achieves its goal of integration.
o In Jung’s words, ‘The symbols of divinity coincide with those of the self: what, on the one side,
appears as a psychological experience, signifying psychic wholeness, expresses on the other
side the idea of God’.
The value of religion now becomes clear.
o If one rejects religion, one is at the same time rejecting a substantial part of the individuation mechanism
o Those who reject religion are therefore less likely to individuate successfully, and therefore
more likely to experience neurosis as a result of the remaining psychological tension.
o For this reason, Jung can conclude that religion is a valuable entity.
JUNG’S CONCLUSION AS TO THE EXISTENCE OF GOD
Q. If belief in God stems from structural components of the psyche, does this mean that
God does or does not exist?
Jung’s conclusion to the existence of an actual God is similar to Freud’s: there is no proof either way.
Jung wrote: ‘We simply do not know the ultimate derivation of the archetype
any more than we know the origin of the psyche. The competence of
psychology as an empirical science only goes so far as to establish on the
basis of comparative research, whether for instance the imprint found in the
psyche can or cannot be termed a ‘God-image’. Nothing positive or negative
has thus been asserted about the possible existence of any God.’
This is because:
o We simply do not know where the archetype ultimately derives from any
more than we know the origin of the psyche. (Remember, all archetypes
are ineffable)
o All that can be asserted is that God, and the whole entity of religion,
exists as a psychic reality.
o This means that – as a psychic reality – God is real to those who experience the effect of the
archetypes.
o However, nothing can be proved about his empirical existence or nature outside the mind.
REJECTION OF FREUD: RELIGION IS NOT A DANGEROUS ENTITY, BUT USEFUL TO
HUMANITY
This agnostic view on the existence of God is shared by both Jung and Freud. BUT what Jung makes
of this conclusion is completely different.
o Freud thought that religion was a neurotic illness and a dangerous illusion that needed to be
overthrown. Religion perpetuates and magnifies the problem of neurosis.
o While Jung argued that it performs the role of individuation and maintaining the balance of the
mind and preventing neuroses.
o Jung considered religious belief to be a natural expression of the collective unconscious.
VERY IMPORTANT H/W DUE IN THIS LESSON NEXT WEEK,
WRITE AN ESSAY ANSWERING THIS 30 MARK EXAM QUESTION:
(a)
o
o
o
Explain Jung’s understanding of religion. (30 marks)
Make sure you cover all of the above information – the more you include, the higher the
marks.
Remember to always IDENTIFY KEY TERMS, DEFINE THEM, AND ILLUSTRATE THEM WITH
EXAMPLES (where possible)
This question may actually come up in the January exam so make sure you write to the best
of your ability – if it is good you could revise from it, or at least find out where you are going
wrong.
3. CRITICISMS OF JUNG’S THEORY
(FOR ANSWERING ‘B’ QUESTIONS)
This next and final section is critical information that assesses Jung’s psychological theory of
religion. You MUST know these challenges in order to answer the ‘B’ question in the exam.
CHALLENGE TO JUNG’S THEORY OF ARCHETYPES
HOW WE SHARE IMAGES: ARCHETYPES VS CULTURAL TRANSMISSION
Jung was keen to provide evidence for archetypes in the form of the case studies of Miss. Miller and
the male schizophrenic who envisioned the sun having a phallus. He argued that such cases show a
spontaneous occurrence of the same themes in the dreams, hallucinations and delusions of
unsophisticated patients, who would never have encountered such themes in waking life. Hence, he
argued such religious images were primordial images derived from this collective unconscious.
However, critics would reject this hypothesis and remain unimpressed by
such examples. The are that the discovery of parallel themes in myths
derived from different parts of the world can be explained by cultural
transmission: human migration and the cultural diffusion that follows.
o E.g. consider yourself growing up in England, even if you are not
Christian and never had a RS class in your life, you would still be aware
of elements of Christianity due to artworks and symbols in the public
domain, or even in pop culture.
It is not wholly persuasive to argue that whenever a phenomenon is found to be shared by far ranging
human communities that it is an expression of an innate archetype inherited in the collective
unconsciousness. Cultural factors can just as easily explain this phenomenon.
WHY WE HAVE RELIGIOUS INSTINCTS: ARCHETYPES ARE NOT REQUIRED TO EXPLAIN THIS
Building on the first criticism, the concept of archetypal religious impulses are simply not required
to explain the ‘evidence’ of religious tendencies (or the common tendency to construct uniform
images).
Geza Roheim, for example, states that since all humans share broadly the same experiences, it is
hardly surprising that we develop myths along similar lines.
o The common experiences of birth and dependence upon parents and the Sun explain, for example,
common ideas about rebirth, parent gods and Sun gods.
Also, many religious myths respond to the social concerns of a particular community makes it
hard to accept that they come from an impulse which is common to the whole of mankind.
o E.g. much of the Bible: apocalyptic writings having been dated to the times in which the Israelites
were being invaded by other armies; the Ten Commandments as social rules to help ensure a
stable community whilst in exile.
Upon these grounds, it is argued that Jung is not justified in postulating an archetypal ‘instinct for
God from the evidence that people believe in God’.
THE PROBLEM OF ATHEISM
A further point: many people do not believe in God.
o Jung replied that atheism is a form of religion.
o But he is making this judgement on empirical evidence, and then manipulating any conflicting
evidence to his advantage, thus precluding any possibility of his judgement ever being falsified.
o His judgement hence becomes a necessary truth – but without justification.
THE PROBLEM OF ENFORCED AGNOSTICISM
Similar to the point about Jung’s views on atheism, Jung’s rejection of the possibility of ever knowing
whether God exists rests upon the assumption that nothing can be known of any entity outside the
psychic world. The question of God being unanswerable since this would
involve searching beyond the psychic world into the world of reality.
Many reject this starting point, but Jung refused to allow any evidence to
count against him. Jung set up a necessary truth and hence safeguarded
it from ever being refuted by empirical evidence.
o In this, however, he had no justification.
o His reasoning is poor, here – he is being unduly dogmatic (he will stick
to his belief even if given evidence to the contrary).
CHALLENGE TO JUNG’S CONCEPT OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE
ARCHETYPAL IMAGES ARE NOT NUMINOUS / RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES
Martin Buber was not convinced that an experience that stems from the mind and, as such, is in no
way external to the subject can properly be termed religious.
o This criticism concerns Jung’s notion that the collective unconscious is external to the person
because it is not directly accessible.
o Buber is arguing that just while it is not directly accessible it does not mean the collective
unconscious should be considered external to the person.
o And therefore the experiences that arise from the collective unconsciousness cannot be
considered to be numinous / religious (since such numinous experiences need to be external to
the person).
RELIGIOUS IMAGES ARE NOT UNIQUE OR DISTINCT IN JUNG’S THEORY
Jung’s argument that any archetypal image may be described as
religious has come under fire. The problem is that if a vision of being
trapped in armour is as religious as a vision of God, Jung has:
o Failed to preserve the uniqueness of religious experience.
o He has also failed to explain why this type of experience is so
distinctive in the minds of the subject.
o E.g. The impact of a religious experience is widely considered to be
unique, often leading to conversion (e.g. Saul’s vision on the road
to Damascus, he eventually became St. Paul). Why does a vision of
God lead to a conversion, whilst common images of armour do not?
o Hence Jung fails to account for how religious experiences need to
be distinct from other experiences.
CHALLENGE TO THE ROLE OF RELIGION WITHIN INDIVIDUATION
We have just challenged Jung’s notion that all archetypes are religious; since his redefining of all
religious phenomena as ‘numinous’ and defining of all archetypes as ‘numinous’ is inadequate.
And so, Jung’s definition of individuation as a religious process can be challenged for the same reason:
o If individuation is governed by the Self archetype,
o and such an archetype is not distinctively religious,
o then it may be argued that the process of individuation has nothing to do with God.
H/W QUESTION: (b) To what extent has God been explained away by Jung’s views? (15 marks)
o
o
The PRO points that positively support this claim will consist in Jung’s actual theory, the CON points that
challenge this claim will consist in the above criticisms.
Make sure your conflict points (PRO vs CON) are precise by following the aspect of Jung’s theory with
the relevant criticism.
>>> PART THREE <<<.
>>> REVISION STUFF <<<.
REVISION – SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS OF EACH THEORY
THESE BULLET POINTS ARE THE STRUCTURE FOR YOUR 30 MARK ESSAYS
(‘A’ EXAM QUESTIONS) THAT EXPLAIN FREUD OR JUNG’S UNDERSTANDING OF RELIGION
The more of the info on these checklist that you include, and PROPERLY EXPLAIN, the
higher your mark will be.
FREUD’S THEORY

Intro: Wish fulfilment  illusion  neurosis to deal with:
1. Inner Psychological Conflict
o Collective neurosis
o Unconscious mind  Hysteria  Repression
o Incompletely repressed trauma  Ritual Behaviour  OCD / Religion  Ambivalence
o Sexual trauma  Libido  Oedipus Complex  Primal Hordes  Animism + Religion
o Religion is an illusion  Trauma re-emerged
2. The conflict between our natures and civilisation
o Society vs individual  Structure vs desire  Taboo
o Resolve conflict  sublimation  Charity / Art
3. Helplessness and fear of natural forces
o Fear of natural forces  Panic  Control
o God as ultimate father  Protection  Wish fulfilment

Conclusion: The Illusion of Religion should be Rejected
o Not beneficial to society  Science / Rational  Willingness
o Not beneficial morally  Oppression  Abuse
JUNG’S THEORY
1. The Key Concepts of Jung’s Theory
o Concept of Mind  Consciousness  Personal Unconscious  Collective Unconscious
o Archetypes  Pre-exist  Source  Shared  Examples: Persona / Shadow, Animus /
Anima
o How Neurosis Occurs  Libido  Psychic Imbalance
o Individuation  Outer Environment  Inner Personality
2. The Religious Implications of Jung’s Theory
o God as Archetype  Mrs. Miller  Numinous
o Religion in Individuation  Self archetype  Wholeness  Mandala / God  Psychic
balance
o The Existence of God  Ineffable  Psychic reality  No empirical proof
THIS INFO MAY ALSO BE USEFUL FOR VARIOUS ‘B’ (15 MARK) QUESTIONS
For the (B) question, you’ll most likely need to specify particular aspects of Jung or Freud’s theory as
either a PRO point that supports the claim in the question, as a CON point that challenges the claim. In
which case, knowing this checklist is useful as you can ensure you have properly explained that specific
aspect of his theory that you are writing about.
REVISION – SUMMARY OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
FREUD AND JUNG’S UNDERSTANDING OF RELIGION
FREUD
JUNG
LIBIDO AS WHOLLY SEXUAL DRIVE
LIBIDO AS AN UNDIFFERENTIATED LIFE-FORCE
(REJECTION OF OEDIPUS COMPLEX)
RELIGION AS NEUROSIS
RELIGION AS CURE FOR NEUROSIS
RELIGION AS DANGEROUS TO HUMANITY
RELIGION AS BENEFICIAL TO HUMANITY
THIS INFO IS USEFUL FOR EXAM QUESTIONS SUCH AS:

(b) ‘The impact that psychology has had on religion has been wholly negative.’
Assess this claim. (15 marks)
Freud can be used for PRO points to support the claim (since he takes a negative view of religion), while
Jung’s theory should be used as CON points to counter the claim (since he takes a positive view).

(a) Outline the differences between Freud and Jung’s understanding of religion. (30 marks)
You can structure this longer essay according to these three main conflict points. Each conflict point (or row
on the above table) should constitute one big paragraph; so your essay has three big paragraphs in total.
PAST EXAM QUESTIONS
TASK: Write bullet points on how you would answer the following questions.
 Note what the focus of your essay will be
 And what kind of info will be included
‘A’ QUESTIONS / 30 MARKS

Explain how psychology may challenge religious belief.

Explain Jung’s understanding of religion.

Examine Jung’s view of religion as an expression of the collective unconscious.

Examine Freud’s view of religious belief.

Explain how psychology has understood religion, with particular reference to:
o The Oedipus Complex
o The Theory of Archetypes

Outline the differences between Freud and Jung’s understanding of religion.
‘B’ QUESTIONS / 15 MARKS
TASK: Write bullet points on how you would answer the following questions.




The table represents the structure of ‘B’ answers
PRO points support the claim of the question;
CON points challenge the claim of the question
And what kind of info / illustrations will be included
These are the questions where you include the CRITICISMS OF THE THEORIES

‘Religion has been successful in responding to the challenges of psychology.’
To what extent do you agree?
PRO
CON
1
1
2
2
CONCLUSION:

To what extent has God been explained away by Jung’s views?
PRO
CON
1
1
2
2
CONCLUSION:

‘There is a strong relationship between religion and unbalanced mental health.’
To what extent do you agree with this view?
PRO
CON
1
1
2
2
CONCLUSION:

‘Jung’s view of religion challenges religious belief.’ Assess this claim.
PRO
CON
1
1
2
2
CONCLUSION:

‘Psychology has successfully explained “God” away.’ Assess this claim.
PRO
CON
1
1
2
2
CONCLUSION:

‘The impact that psychology has had on religion has been wholly negative.’
Assess this claim.
PRO
CON
1
1
2
2
CONCLUSION:
FINAL EXAM TIPS
Your EXAM IS IN JANUARY so make sure you practice answering these questions!!!
Remember, to get the highest marks in each type of question:

‘A’ QUESTIONS:
The more of the info on the checklist of page 26 that you include, AND PROPERLY
EXPLAIN, the higher your mark.

‘B’ QUESTIONS:
You MUST show BOTH SIDES of the argument (hence PRO vs CON) and have a
CONCLUSION
You must complete the entire exam within 1 hr 15min:
 This means answering two ‘A’ questions and two ‘B’ questions.
So in terms of timing spend:
 22 mins for ‘A’ questions
 15 mins for ‘B’ questions
GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS FOR ‘PSYCHOLOGY AND RELIGION’
o
AMBIVALENCE – uncertainty or fluctuation, caused by inability to make a choice or by a
simultaneous desire to say or do two opposite or conflicting things
o
ANIMISM – Veneration of animals as idols worthy of worship.
o
ARCHETYPE: the part of the psyche that creates primordial images.
o
COLLECTIVE NEUROSIS – a neurotic illness (psychological disturbance, mental illness) that
afflicts ALL people.
o
COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS (JUNG) – Inherited and common to all humans, this part of the
mind contains archetypes, our basic drives and impulses.
o
CONSCIOUS MIND – Where we actively make decisions and choices, reflect and think. Such
thoughts are based on the sensory experience we perceive, i.e. the things we see, hear, smell,
touch, taste. These thoughts are directly accessible, as are the memories we are able to recall.
o
INDIVIDUATION – a spontaneous process that involves ‘becoming one’s own self’.
o
LIBIDO (FREUD) – the psyche’s drive to achieve satisfaction. It includes the sexual drive.
o LIBIDO (JUNG) – the source of psychic energy. An undifferentiated life-force.
o
MANDALA – a perfectly balanced circle, geometric in design, often symmetrical, whose centre is
emphasised. This design is traditionally understood to represent balance and wholeness.
o
NEUROSIS – is a psychological disturbance, or mental illness, that involves physical symptoms
like pain, compulsive behaviour etc. But any such symptom has no actual physical cause – they are
rooted in the mind.
o
NUMINOUS EXPERIENCE – a non-sensory experience or feeling whose source is outside the self
(external to our consciousness).
o
OEDIPUS COMPLEX – The trauma that causes the neurosis of religion; the taboo of wishing to
obtain the mother and kill the father.
o
PERSONAL UNCONSCIOUS (JUNG) – Underlying thoughts, feelings, urges; all of which are not
directly accessible.
o
PSYCHIC ENERGY – the psychological energy by which the work of the personality is performed.
o
PRIMITIVE HORDES – groups of people arranged around a single dominant male who had total
authority over the group and held claim over all the females. Over time, the resentments of the
younger males grew, until they grouped together to kill him.
o
REPRESSION – when unwanted or taboo thoughts, desires, fears and anxieties are banished into
the unconscious.
o
SELF’ ARCHETYPE – guides and controls the innate process of individuation.
o
SUBLIMATION – the transformation of certain drives / impulses into other channels.
o
UNCONSCIOUS MIND (FREUD) – A vast store containing basic drives, natural impulses such as
that to breath and to desire, as well as forgotten memories. These memories are not directly
accessible.
o
WISH FULFILMENT – in certain circumstances, the human mind will create beliefs and images to
satisfy its most basic longings and desires.