Final Exam Study Guide
Medical Terminology
Ophthalmoscope = An instrument used for examining the eyes
Otoscope = An instrument used for examining the ears
Otosclorosis = hardening of the bones within the ear
Cholelithiasis = Gallstones
Cholecystitis = Inflammation of the gallbladder
Cholecystectomy = Removal of the gallbladder
Pericardititis = Inflammation of the lining surrounding the heart
Endocardititis = Inflammation of the inner lining of the heart
Bradycardia = Slow heart rate
Tachycardia = Fast heart rate
Phlebotomist = A person who obtains blood specimens for laboratory studies
Body Systems
Directional planes (imaginary lines)
frontal/coronal (divides into front and back)
sagital/midline (divides into left and right)
transverse/superior-inferior (divides into top and bottom)
cranial/cudial ( head and tail)
Body cavities
Anterior
Thoracic ( heart, thymus gland, bronchus, lungs, esophogus)
Abdominal (stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreases, spleen, some of the intestines)
Pelvic (intestines, reproductive organs, bladder)
Dorsal
Cranial (brain)
Spinal (spinal cord)
The abdominal cavity is further divided in 9 sections
Rt.Hypochondriac
Rt. Lumbar
Rt. Iliac
Hypergastric
Umbibical
Hypogastric
Lt. Hypochondriac
Lt. Lumbar
Lt.Iliac
Important terms
Cicatrix = scar tissue
Clean wound – wound free from infection
Granulation = The way in which deep wounds heal = fill in from the inside out
Scab = when capillaries break, serum and cellular elements leak out, dry and form crusty seal
Cells the are alike form tissues
There are four major types of tissues found in our body (Every cow needs milking)
Epithelial
Connective (hard and soft)
Nerve
Muscle
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Two layers of tissue forms membranes
Two types of membranes
Serous =covers organs and body parts which are in closed body cavities
Mucus = covers in insides of organs and body parts which lead to the outside of the body
The two layer of a membrane
Visceral-inner layer which lies against the organ
Parietal –outer layer
Membranes which cover specific areas are given specific identification
Pericardial membrane – membrane around the heart
Peritoneal membrane = membrane which covers the abdominal cavity
Pleural membrane = membrane which covers the lungs
Integumentary System (skin)
Three layers of the skin
Epidermis =stratum cornea, stratum germinativum (contains cells called melanocytes and pigments
called melanin)
Dermis = the root and hair follicle (hallow cavity which surrounds the hair root), sudoriferous gland
(sweat), sebaceous gland (oil or sebum), nerve endings, capillaries, arrector pili (muscle attached to the hair
follicle) Subcutaneous = soft connective tissue which connects the skin to the muscles
The visible part of a hair is called the hair shaft.
Medulla = inner layer which contains pigments.
Cortex = outer layer
Papillae- are ridges found in the stratum cornea layer, these help grip objects
Disorders of the skin
Alopecia – baldness
First degree burns = superficial burn involving the epidermal layer, reddnes that goes away and pain
Second degree burns = involve epidermal and dermal layer , blisters form, pain
Third degree burns = involve epidermal, dermal, muscle layer, nerves,
Herpes = a virus that lies on nerve endings, blisters form, painful
Acne vulgaris = sebaceous gland is clogged, infected
Athletes feet = fungus, highly contagious
Ring warm = fungus, highly contagious
Impetigo = bacterial infection, highly contagious
Melanoma = A malignant form of skin cancer
Basal cell carcinoma = Least malignant and most common form of cancer
Rules of nine = A formula for determining the percentage of body area burned
Skeletal System
Osteocytes – microscopic bone cells
Porous bone = spongy bone
Compact bone = hard bone
Hemopoiesis – formation of blood cells
Erthropoiesis – formation of red blood cells
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Structure of long bones
Diaphysis = shaft or middle made of hard compact bone
Epiphyses = ends of bone, fill with marrow, where blood cells are formed
Medullary canal = center / inside of bone , filled with marrow
Haversian calals = timy long canals in the bones tissue which contain blood vessels that bring
nourishment to the bone cells
Periosteum = tough membrane that covers the bone
Parts of the skeletal system
Axial = skull, spinal column, ribs, sternum and hyoid bone
Appendicular = upper extremities, shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, lower extremities
Identification of skeletal bones
Cranium =frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
Spinal column = cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx
Sternum – breast bone
Ribs = 12 pairs
Shoulder girdle = clavicle and scapulae
Upper extremity = humorous, ulna, radius, carpals metacarpals, phalanges
Lower extremity = femur (largest bone) tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges
Patella = knee
Calcaneus’s = ankle
Joints
Ball-and–socket = most moveable – hip
Hinge = elbow, knee
Pivot = wrist
Gliding =spinal column
Movement of bones
Flexion = bringing two bones closer together
Extension = increasing the angle between two bones
Abduction = moving an extremity away from the midline
Adduction = moving an extremity toward the midline
Circumduction = movement that involves all of the above
Rotation = movement around one axis
Pronation = downward
Supanation = upward
Disorders of the bones
Fracture = break
Closed/simple = a break that does not penetrate the skin
Open/compound = a break that penetrates the skin
Greenstick = a bone is partially broke
Treatments for breaks
Closed reduction = non invasive alignment of the bone (cast, sling, splint)
Open reduction = surgical alignment of the bones (pins, screws metal plates)
Traction =a pulling force is used to hold bones in place
Bone and Joint injuries
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Dislocation – bone is displaced from its proper position in a joint
Sprain – injury to a joint of ligament, swelling occurs
Arthritis – inflammation of the joint
Abnormal curvatures of the spine
Kyphosis = humpback
Lordosis = inward curvature
Scoliosis = lateral curvature
Osteoporosis – Loss of bone mass
Muscular System
Function
Movement
Posture
Body heat
Types of muscle
Skeletal = located on bones (biceps, deltoids, hamstrings)
Cardiac = heart muscle
Smooth = lines the walls of organs (stomach, uterus, arteries)
Sphincter = small circular muscles (iris, anus, cardiac, pyloric)
Characteristics of muscles
Contractibility = muscles contract = shorten and thicken
Excitability = they respond to a stimulus
Extensibility = they can stretch
Elasticity = they can return to their original length (rubber band)
Muscle attachments
Origin – part of the muscle which attaches to the least moveable bone
Insertion - part of the muscle which attaches to the most moveable bone
Correct order of a muscle contraction
Impulse–dendrite-axon- terminal branch-synaptic cleft- sarcolemma (membrane covering the
muscle)
Muscles must have energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphasate) in order to contract.
Muscle contraction produce most of the heat required to maintain body
Muscle tone = muscles are slightly contracted at all times
Muscle fatique = is caused by an accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles. This is caused by incomplete
oxidation of glucose due to the lack of oxygen
Identification of important muscle and muscle groups
Sternocleidomastoid = neck (flexes and rotates head)
Deltoid = shoulder (main muscle used for IM injections)((abducts upper arm)
Biceps brachii = anterior upper arm (flexes lower arm)
Triceps brachii = posterior upper arm ((extends lower arm)
Pectoralis major = anterior chest ((Flexes upper arm and helps abduct it)
Rectus abdominis = stomach muscles, compresses stomach
Intercostals = between ribs = raises ribs and helps with breathing
Diaphram = separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities (assists with breathing)
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Gluteus medius and maximus= buttocks (extends and rotate femur)
Rectus femoris =femur (abducts and rotates thigh)
Sartorius = runs diagonally across the thigh (flexes and rotates thigh)
Gastroneumius = calf (points and flexes the lower leg)
Soleus =found beneath the gastrneumius (extends foot)
Trapeizuis = shoulders (moves the shoulder and extends the head)
Latissums dorse = `lower back
Musculo-sketetal disorders
Strain = tear in the muscle resulting in limited bleeding
Spasm = cramp
Myalgia = muscle pain
Fibromyalgia = chronic muscle pain lasting 3 to 4 months
Tetanus = infectious disease characterized by continous spasms of the voluntary muscles
Muscular dystrophy = a group diseases in which the muscles deteriorate (genetic)
Shin splints = injury to the muscle tendon in front shin
Rotator cuff disease = inflammation of a group of tendons that surrounds the shoulder
Nervous System
The body has two communication systems
Endocrine= chemical
Nervous = impulses
Nervous System consists of
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
Neuron - Nerve cell
Neuroglia = nerve glue
Structure of a neuron
Dendrite = finger like projections
Cell body = nucleus
Axon = single arm
Myelin sheath = membrane which covers the axon
Nodes of Ranvier =area of indention along the axon
Terminal branchs = ends of the neuron
Synaptic Cleft = the area between the terminal branches of one neuron and the dendrites of another
neuron
Neurotransmitters = chemicals which are released at the terminal branches and stimulate the
dendrites of another neuron or the membrane of a muscle (sacrolemma} These include epinephrine,
Norepinephrine, dopamine, and acetylcholine
Afferent/Sensory neurons receive and carry impulses from the receptors sites
Efferent/ motor neurons carry impulses to muscle, glands or organs
Interneurons carry impulses from the sensory to the motor neurons
In order for a nerve impulse to begin there must be a stimulus
The Divisions of the Nervous System
Central (brain and spinal cord)
Peripheral (nerves which come off of the spinal cord)
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Autonomic (peripheral nerves and ganglia (a group of cell bodies outside the CNS that carry
impulses to involuntary muscles and glands
Central Nervous System
Brain =Composed of gray matter (cortex) and white matter (deep with in the brain)
Spinal cord
Divided into four major parts:
1. Cerebrum = largest and highest part of the brain ( frontal , parietal, occipital, and temporal)
Frontal = controls voluntary motor functions and speech (broca’s area)
Parietal = pain, touch, heat, cold, distances, sizes and shapes
Occipital = vision
Temporal = sound and smell
2. Cerebellum = located below the cerebrum. Maintains balance, muscle and coordination of muscle
movements
3. Brain stem = A pathway for the ascending and descending nerve tracts. Controls vital body
functions and wake and sleep center (coma)
Midbrain = vision and hearing
Pons = respirations
Medulla oblongata = heart rated, rate and depth of respirations, vasoconstriction
4. Diencephalon = Located between the cerebrum and the midbrain
Thalmus = relay station for incoming and outgoing nerve impulses
Hypothamus = “brain of the brains” stimulates the pituitary gland Vital functions include:
autonomic nervous system, constriction and dilatation of blood vessels, temperature control, appetite control,
water balance, manufactures oxytocin, peristalsis and secretion of gastric enzymes, emotions, a dn sleep
control.
Meninges = membrane which covers the brain and spinal cord. Three layers include:
Dura mater = outer and most durable layer
Arachnoid mater = middle layer, contains cerebral spinal fluid
pia mater = the layer which lies next to the brain
Ventricles = four cavities within the brain which are filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Choroid plexus = specialized capillary-like structures which produce cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid = a fluid produced in the ventricle, which circulates throughout the lining of the
meninges . It provides nutrients and serves as a shock absorber to protect the brain and spinal cord.
Spinal cord = Continues down form the brain. Serves as both a reflex center and conduction pathway for
impulses to and from the brain.
Disorders of the nervous System
Meningitis = Inflammation fo the linings of the brain and spinal. May be viral or bacterial
Encephalitis = Inflammation of the brain. May be viral or chemical
Epilepsy = A seizure disorder of the brain. There is uncontrolled electrical activity in the neurons of the
brain. Anticonvulsants may control the seizures
Cerebral palsy = a disturbance in voluntary muscular action due to brain damage. There is spastic movement
of the extremities, head rolling, difficulty in speech and swallowing, There is usually no intellectual
impairment.
Parkinson’s disease = There is decrease in the neurotransmitter dopamine. Characterized by tremors, a
shuffling gait, pill-rolling and muscular rigidity
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Multiple sclerosis (MS) = A chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system in which immune
cells attack the myelin sheaths (covering of the axon). This selays or completely blocks the
transmission of the nerve impulses.
Alzheimer’s disease = A progressive disease in which the nerve ending in the cortex of the brain deteriorate
There are three stages
1. Confusion, short-term memory loss ( 2-4 yrs)
2. Increased confusion, unable ot recognize familiar persons, loss of social skills
3. Inability to recognize oneself , wt loss, aphasia ( difficulty speaking)
Hematology
The study of blood
The average human has 5-6 quarts
Functions = Transport nutrients, O2, waste, hormones, distributes heat, acid base balance, fight infection
Blood has both liquid and solid components
Plasma = liquid portion
Cellualar elements =erythrocytes (RBC’s), leukocytes (WBC’s), thrombocytes (platelets)
Plasma
Water
Blood proteins = hemoglobin
Plasma proteins = (FAG’S) Fibrinogen, albumin, globulins (gamma globulin, prothrombin)
Nutrients = those absorbed during the digestive process via villa in the small intestines
Electrolytes = NA, K, CA, Cl
Hormones
Waste products from cellular metabolism = CO2
Cellular Components
Erythrocytes = RBC’s (small, biconcave, flat disks)
CARRIES OXYGEN TO ALL CELLS WITHIN THE BODY
Contain pigment hemoglobin ( Iron, and Protein) O 2 attaches to the Hg molecule
Antigens for blood types and rh factor also found on the RBC
Leukocytes = WBC’s ( large, translucent, irregular shaped)
FIGHTS INFECTION
Types include neutrophils, eosiniophils, basophils, lymphocytes, monocytes
Thrombocytes = platelets (very small. Round)
INITIATES BLOOD CLOTTING
Important terms
Erythopoiesis = the production of RBC’s in the red bone marrow of long bones.
Phagocytosis = the process in which WBC’s surrounds, engulf and digests harmful bacteria
Diapedesis = the ability WBC’s have that allows them to move across the capillary wall into the
surrounding tissue
Pyrexia = fever
Ulcer = skin is damaged above the dermal layer
Abscess = skin is damaged below the dermal layer
Blood types = antigens found on the RBC
A = (A antigen, B antibodies)
B = ( B antigen, A antibodies)
AB = Universal recipient (A and B antigens, no antibodies)
O = Universal donor No antigens , A and B antibodies)
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(one is born with the antibodies against blood types)
Rh Factor = antigen found on the RBC
Rh + = antigen is present
Rh - = antigen is not present
(One has to be exposed to the Rh + antigen before antibodies will develop)
Disorders of the Blood
Anemia = a deficiency in the number of the RBC’s
Sickle Cell anemia = (Genetic disorder) a chronic blood disease that is inherited. The disease causes
the RBC’s to form an abnormal shape (sickle shape) which inhibits its ability flow freely through the small
capillaries. They often “get stuck” and cause a “traffic jam” within the capillaries. Thus the surrounding
areas do not receive O2 . Tissues die.
Thrombosis = Blood clot
Hemophilia = (Genetic disorder) = blood does not clot properly. Often call “free bleeders”
Leukemia = A cancerous disorder in which there is a great increase in the number of WBC’s . Those
produced are immature and do not function properly.
Erythroblastosis fetalis – the death of a newborn due to coagulation of it’s blood caused by Rh
incompatibility of the fetus and the mother. RHO Gam is medication that is given to the mother prior to
delivery to prevent the coagulation of blood.
Carbon minoxcide poisioning = A colorless, odorless disorders in which carbon monoxide binds to
the Hg molecule instead of O2 .
Circulatory System
Two major circuits
Cardiopulmonary = the flow of blood from the heart - to lungs - back to heart
Systemic = the circulation of blood throughout the body
Heart
Myocardium = heart muscle
Pericardial membrane = surrounds the heart
Pericardial fluid = fluid within the pericardial membrane
Endocardial membrane = lines the inside of the heart
Septum = the thick muscular wall which separates the right and left sides of the heart
The heart has four chambers
Atrium (2) = upper
Ventricles (2) = lower
The heart has four valves found between each chamber
Tricuspid valve = rt atrium and rt ventricle
Bicuspid (mitral) valve = left atrium and left ventricle
Pulmonary valve = rt ventricle and pulmonary artery
Aortic valve = left ventricle and the aortic artery
Structures leading to and from the heart
Superior and Inferior Vena Cava = Largest veins in the body. Brings deoxygenate blood to the rt
atrium
Aorta = Largest artery in the body. Carries oxygenated blood away from the heart
Pulmonary artery = carries deoxygenated to the lungs
Pulmonary vein = carries oxygenated blood to the left atrium
Coronary artery = the first artery which branches off the the aorta. Delivers oxygenated blood to the
heart.
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Flow of blood
Inferior/superior vena cava (deoxygenated blood)
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein (oxygenated blood)
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Aorta
Conductive pathway
SA node (pacemaker) a group of conducting cells = located in the upper rt atrium, causes both atria
to contract
Av node = another group of conducting cells , located in the lower rt atria
Bundle of his = conducting fibers along the septum of the heart
Perkinje Fibers = conducting fibers covering the ventricles., causes them to contract
Systemic System
Aorta = largest artery in the body
Arteries =elastic, muscular, thick wall
Capillaries = smallest blood vessels connects the arterioles to venules, one cell thick. THIS IS
WHERE O2 AND ESSENTIAL NURTIENTS ARE DELIEVERED TO THE CELLS AND WASTE
PRODUCTS ARE PICKED UP.
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Communications
The communication model refers to the following
Sender
Receiver
Message
Medium
Feedback
Types of nonverbal communication
Gestures
Postures
Touch
Personal space
Influences on communication
Perceptions
Social influences
Cultural Influences
Physical needs
Psychological needs
Time
Personal Values
Barriers to communication
Physical Barriers = Hearing loss, loss of vision, speech difficulties (aphasia)
Physiological Barriers = Prejudice, attitudes and personality
Cultural diversity = language barriers, traditions, diets
Killer phrases = Discourage future communication (That’s a good idea but…)
When caring for a patient who is visually impaired you should:
Use a soft tone voice
Explain sounds or noises
Use touch when appropriate
Describe events that are occurring
Announce yourself as you enter a room
Never raise your tone of voice to someone who has a hearing or visual impairment
You should always be patient with someone who has a speech impairment (aphasia)
Fear of the unknown is the most common reason patients and/or their family members display anger.
Ways to make communication more effective
Using good speaking and listening skills
Use of I messages = These statements put you in control ( I am annoyed when you are late)
Constructive criticism
Good listening skills include
Waiting 3-5 minutes before taking notes
Correcting distractions
Asking questions
Nodding
Listening for the main idea
Not arguing mentally
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Blocks to communication include
Semantics
Preoccupation
First Impression
Stereotyping ( Dumb blond)
Hidden Agenda (Mom, Can I help you with the dishes tonight?)
Scapegoating ( I would not have failed the test if the teacher could teach!)
Killer phrases – (That’s a good idea but….)
Kosher diet is a Jewish diet which includes fruits and vegetables and cereals. Foods which are restricted
include, pork, birds of prey, and seafood with scales.
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