北京师范大学
教育研究中的比较―历史方法
Lecture 9
Explaining Big Structures and Large Process
Global Education Reforms: In Comparative-Historical Perspective
(I)
Gobal Education Reform for the Twenty-First Century
A. The Statement of the Problem
1. Why is there lifelong-learning education reform at this point in time in HKSAR?
2. Why are there similar education reforms in the US, UK, Singapore, Taiwan, South
Korea, and PRC at about the same, i.e. the turn of the century?
3. What are the similarities and differences in these education reforms?
4. Global convergence or divergence of education reform: A New Institutionalist
Perspective
5 What are the particular and/or similarity of the natures and features of the HKSAR
education reform in comparison with those in other countries?
B. Education Reforms as Phenomena of Global Convergence: Lifelong Learning, Lifelong
Education, Learning Society, Learning Nation, etc.
1. Education Reform in the UK
a. Lifetime learning: A policy framework (1996)
b. The learning age: A renaissance for new Britain (1998)
2. Education Reform in the US
a. Goal 2000 Act, 1994
b. A nation learning: Version for the 21st Century (1997)
c. No Child Left Behind Act of 2001
3. Education Reform in Canada
a. Knowledge Matters: Skills and learning for Canadians (2002)
b. Achieving excellence: Investing in people, knowledge and opportunity (2002)
4. Education Reform in Australia
a. National Board of Employment, Education and Training (1996) Lifelong
learning ―― Key issues
b. Dept. of Education, Science and Training (1998) Learning for life: Review of
higher education financing and policy (1998)
c. Dept. of Education, Science and Training (2003) Lifelong learning in Australia
5. Education Reform in South Korea
Ministry of Education Adapting Education to the Information Age (2000-2004)
6. Education Reform in Singapore:
Education for Learning Society in the 21st Century (2000)
7. Education Reform in Taiwan
教育改革行動方案, 1998
8. Education Reform in HKSAR
Education Commission (2000) Education for Life and Education through Life
9. OECD (1991) The lifelong learners in the 1990s.
OECD (1996) Lifelong learning for all.
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OECD (2001) Education policy analysis 2001.
10. UNESCO (1996) Learning: The Treasure from within.
11. European Commission (1995) Teaching and learning: Towards the learning society
C. Methodological Assumptions of Comparative Analysis of Convergence of Global
Education Reform
1. Paradigm convergence of education reforms rather than simple convergence of
education reforms (Ball, 1999)
2. Conditional or functional causality rather than deterministic or nomological causality
3. Specification framework of global effects on education reforms (Dale, 1999)
D. In Search of a Theoretical Framework: Global-Informational Age and the Governance
of the Competition State
1. Globalization as a process of compression of time and space
2. Economic consequence
a. The rise of informational-global economy
b. Polarization of globally mobile capitalists and locally immobile workers
c. The constitution of network enterprise
i. Internal organization: Flat and flexible
ii External organization: Lean by means of outsourcing
d. The demand of flexible labor
3. Political consequence
a. The shrinking of the sovereignty of nation-states
b. The collapse of the economic nationalism
c. The transformation of WWII welfare state to global-competition state
d. The rise of the New-Right and the public sector reform
- Deregulatization
- Privatization
- Marketization
4. Cultural consequence
a. Detraditionalization and the advent of the post-traditional society
b. The commodification of culture
c. The rise of consumerism
5. Social consequence
a. Decentering of the modern self: From pilgrim to stroller, vagabond, tourist and
player
b. The constitution of flexible family
c. Identities based on cultural-spatial communities was replaced by identity built on
virtual communities and self-selecting specialized communities
E. Education Reform as Governance Project of the Global-Competition State
1. Education reform as economic project of competition state to solve the economic
crisis elicited by the erosion of the economic nationalism and to enhance nation
competitiveness in global-informational economy and to elevate the employability
of the national labor force
2. Education reform as part of the administrative project of competition state for
reforming the public sectors of the welfare state, in which public schooling system
is the major sector
3. Education reform as political project of global-competition state for nationally
inclusive and politically empowering citizenship in post-materialist politicking
bases
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4. Education reform as cultural project of global-competition state to resolve the
cultural nihilism and moral panic of consumerism and postmodernism
5. Education reform as social-solidarity project of global-competition state to reconstitute social solidarity among de-centering selves and flexible and virtual
communities.
6. Education reform as social-class project of competition state for socially inclusion
and bridging digital divisions between the globally mobile and the locally
immobile, the have and the have-not, IT literate and the illiterate, etc.
F. Lifelong Learning of Instrumental Economicism:
1. Instrumental economicism: The underlying principle
a. Dominance of instrumental rationality: Extrinsic and instrumental value of
competitiveness replaces intrinsic and substantive value of education
b. Economicism: Education is subject to the prescription of economicism in all
aspect
2. Quasi-market mechanism: The operational mechanism
a. The quasi-market restructuring: Restructuring project of education system by
transforming state controlled and professional-led schooling structure into
consumer-led schooling system which resembles as much as possible the neoliberal free market
b. Cult of “Surveillance-Evaluationism”: Constituting of the medium of exchange
in quasi-market: of education
i. Standardization: National Curriculum and Assessment, National Standards,
performance indicators, benchmarking
ii. Classification and hierarchization: School League Table, School Report Card,
Failing school list…
iii. Accountability and auditing: Establishment of Office for Standards in
Education in UK in 1992 and Implementation of school inspection
c. Hegemony of “Discipline-Managerialism”: Constitution of the Supply side of the
quasi market of education
i. Devolution and de-regulation of public schools
ii. From management by input and process to management by output
iii. Hegemony of performativity
iv. The constitution of entrepreneurial school and education by publicity
d. The dominance of Parentocracy-Consumerism: Constitution of the demand side
of the quasi market of education
i. Constitution of market information and signals for consumers: Publicizing
school performance information
ii. Constitution of consumer choice
- Amalgamation of public and private school-sectors, e.g. voucher system
- Privatizing public schools: e.g. opting-out or charter schools
G. Lifelong Learning of Social Inclusion and Political Empowerment
1. The underlying principle
a. Lifelong learning for social inclusion:
i. Provision of continuous and equal educational opportunities for all citizens
ii. Provision of substantive equality of educational opportunities for all citizens
in the form of positively discriminative lifelong learning
iii. Bridging the digital and globally-mobile divisions of social classes
iv. Constitution of social solidarity of collective intelligence
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b. Lifelong learning for political empowerment
i. Continuous and empowering learning for all citizens to acquired knowledge,
skill, attitude and courage to participate in deliberative democracy
ii. Learning for emancipatory politics: Politics of distributive and relational
justice (Rawles, 1971; Gewritz, 2001)
iii. Learning for life politics (Giddens, 1991)
2. The operational mechanism
a. Collective intelligence model (Brown & Lauder, 2001)
i. “Collective intelligence can be defined as empowerment through the
development and pooling of intelligence to attain common goals or resolve
common problems. It is inspired by a spirit of co-operation rather a
Darwinian survival of the fittest. …It involves making a virtue of our mutual
dependence and sociability which we will need to make a dominant feature of
post-industrial society based on information, knowledge and lifelong
learning.” (Brown & Lauder, 2001, p. 218-19)
ii. Two constituents of collective intelligence
- The capacity for intelligence: “The capacity for intelligence describes the
raw materials on which the development of intelligence depends. It refers
to the state of knowledge, scientific discovery, technology and learning
techniques, on which societies can draw. It includes the knowledge and
technological resources amassed in society in the form of books, journals,
databases, computers and laboratories, and super-highways to name but a
few.” (Brown & Lauder, 2001, p. 219)
- Relations of trust: “Trust is used …to refer to whether the development
and pooling of intelligence is reflected in the relationship between
individuals, groups, and social classes that are embedded in classrooms,
offices, shopfloors, household, neighborhoods, welfare policies and
taxation system.” (Brown & Lauder, 2001, p.220)
iii. Conception of “attested mobility” and proportional equality of educational
opportunity
- Replacing both “sponsored mobility” and “contest mobility” educational
selection systems
- Replacing with “attested mobility” educational selection system
“The challenge in a pluralist system of education is to juggle the need to
pay attention to the particularity of cultural identity and yet create rules of
competition which are fair for all groups. The need for fairness across
groups is necessary because at the end of the day educational credentials
will still be a prime determinant of career opportunities. For this reason we
believe a new concept, that of attested mobility should be introduced into
the discussion. To attest is to affirm or bear witness. In this context it
draws attention to the link between a person’s cultural identity and
educational performance.” (Brown & Lauder, 2001, p. 247)
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iv. Conception of cultural and proportional equality of educational opportunity
- “Different groups in society being able to raise the educational standard of
their people in culturally appropriate ways, on the basis of access to
equitable funding.” (p.248)
- Equality of education results will also be defined as the “groups should
achieve equally in education in proportion to their numbers in the
population.” (p. 248)
b. Learning Democracy (Ranson and Steward, 1998)
i. Learning the capacity for cooperative action
ii. Learning the capacity for agency
H. Instrumental Economicsm and Lifelong-Learning Education Reform in HKSAR
1. The principle of instrumental economicism underlying the HKSAR reform
a. ECR#5: Discourse on teachers as human resource for enhancing the
competitiveness of HK economy in global market
b. ECR#6: Enhancing language proficiency as an instrument for “maintaining
Hong Kong’s competitive edge as the hub of international trading and
commercial activities.” (Parag. 2.2)
c. ECR#7: Quality education is defined as instrument “to build a competent work
force to promote social, economic and cultural development and to increase our
competitiveness in the international market. (Parag. 1.5)
d. EC Aims of Education (1999): Education Blueprint for the 21st Century
e. ED MOI Guidance for Secondary School (1997)
f. SCOLEAR Action Plan to Raise Language Standards in Hong Kong (2003).
g. EC Review of MOI for Secondary Schools and SSPA (2005)
2. Operational mechanism of quasi-market discourse in HKSAR education reform
a. Medium of exchange of the quasi-market: “Surveillance-Evaluationism”
i. ECR#4 proposal of TAR (Target-related Assessment) and firm guidance for
MOI policy
ii. 1994 ED publicize MIGA
iii. Publication of Profiles for Secondary Schools (1999)
v. Publication of Profiles for Primary Schools (2000)
vi. Establishment of SVAIS (School Value Added Information System)
vii. Implementation of a three-level IT competence assessment for all school
teachers (2000)
viii.2000 Language Benching Assessment for English and Putonhau teachers
vii. Publication of The Teacher Competencies Framework (2003)
ix. Publication of The Framework for Continuing Professional Development of
School Principals (2002)
xi. Publicizing QAI report in the Internet
xii. Carrying out Basic Competence Assessment on students
xiii.2005 EC Review of MOI for Secondary Schools and SSPA announced new
assessment method of identifying EMI-capable
b. Demand side of the quasi-market: “Discipline-Managerialism”
i. ECR#7: Proposals on Quality Assurance and Quality Management
ii. Publication of Performance Indicators by ED (1998)
iii. Establishing the three-tier framework of Quality-Assurance Mechanism
(1998)
iv. ED Carrying out Quality-Assurance Inspection (1998)
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vi. ED organizing competitions of Awards for Outstanding schools and
Teachers (1998)
vii. Publication of School Based Management Consultation Document (2000)
viii Implementation of School Self Evaluation in 2003 (SSE)
ix. EMB began to shut down primary schools with insufficient student
enrollments (2003)
xi. Implementation of External School Review 2004 (ESR)
viii.Passage of the Education (Amendment) Ordinance 2004
ix. Ascending and descending mechanism between EMI and CMI schools
c. Demand-side of quasi-market: “Consumer Sovereignty”
i. ECR#3 proposed to establish Direct Subsidy Scheme in order to recognize
“the potential educational benefits of a strong, independent private school
sector.” (Parag. 4.12 (a))
ii Proposal on establishment of Through-Train Schools (2000)
iii. Proposal on increasing the percentage of discretionary places in SSPA from
10% to 20%
iv. Implementation of New DSS: Government and subsidized schools can opt
out of the SSPA system and collect school fee up to the maximum of 66,00
per year and still be able to obtain the full per capita subsidy of that of the
subsidized schools. (2001)
v. Review on SSPA propose to increase the discretionary places in SSPA to
30%
I. Social Inclusion and Political Empowerment and Lifelong-Learning Education Reform
in HKSAR
1. Underlying principles
a. Reform Proposal for the Education System in HK: Education for Life and
Education Through Life (Sept., 2000)
i. The “No Loser “ principle
ii. The “Through-Train” proposal
iv. Liberalization of tertiary education
b. “What has not been said” analysis
i. Statements of aims in ECR#7
ii. Seven aims of education reform in Learning for Life and Learning through
Life (2000)
2. Operational mechanism
a. Reform of POA and SSPA
b. Establishment of community colleges and associate degree
c. EMB (2005) The New Academic Structure for Senior Secondary Education and
Higher Education
3. Lifelong-learning of inclusion and empowerment: A suppressed reform agenda
a. Reform for social inclusion: Not providing substantive equality of educational
opportunities for senior-secondary and associate-degree students
b. Reform for political empowerment: Complete neglect
J. Global Convergence or Divergence of Education Reform: A New Institutionalist
Perspective
1. Global education reform in the 20th century world system: A Recapitulation
a. The thesis of the political construction of mass education: Mass education as part
of the modern state building project
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i. The rise of European model of national society
ii. The rise of nation-state and the intensification of inter-state conflict
iii. The Reformation in Christianity and counter-Reformation
iv. The rise of the exchange economy
b. Education as a World Culture Institution
i. Ontological basis of modern education
- Primary unit: individual child
- Organizational unit: school
- Role unit within organization: principal, teacher and student
- institutional unit: nation-state
ii. Structural basis of modern education
- Free, egalitarian, compulsory and rational
- professionalized personnel
- standardized and certified product
iii. Legitimation basis of modern organization
- Enhances labor productivity
- Creates good citizenship
- Provides opportunities for self-fulfillment
- Increase national well-being, security, political stability
- Facilitates democracy, liberty and equality
2. Global education reform in the 21st century world system
(II)
Global Education Reforms for Twentieth Century
A. Ramirz and Boli’s Study of the Institutionalization of Mass Education in the 20th
century
1. Why were state educational system constructed throughout Europe in the Late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries?
a. Prussia
i. 1716: Fredrick William I made attendance at village schools compulsory for
all children not otherwise provided with instruction
ii. 1763: Fredrick II (Fredrick the Great )issued General Regulation for Village
School at the end of the Seven Year War (1756-1763), in which Prussia and
England defeated Austria and France
Compulsory state-directed education as means for national unification of
Prussia
iii. 1806: The defeat by the Napoleon and the humiliating Treaty of Tilsit elicited
the call for the provision of universal, state-directed, compulsory education as
means for nation building
b. Austria
i. 1774: Under the rule of Joseph II, universal compulsory education law was
passed after the defeat in the Seven Year War by Prussia and England
ii. 1866: The defeat by Prussia led to definite effort to establish a statecontrolled and secular schooling system
c. Denmark
i. 1721: Frederick IV proclaim to build a genuine national education system
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ii. After the loss of Norway and Sweden in 1809 symbolized the fall from the
status as a major European power, passage of law to introduce compulsory
education for children between the age seven and fourteen.
d. France
i. 1791: The 1791 Constitution called for the establishment of a system of free
instruction common to all citizens.
ii. Napoleon rose to power and developed secondary and higher education as a
means to produce effective elite from the military and governmental
apparatus.
iii. Democratizing and secularizing trends in education were repressed as the
result of the 1840 Revolution and the subsequent regime of the Louis
Napoleon in 1892.
iv. After the defeat the Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War in1870, by 1881, the
Third Republic established a universal, free compulsory primary school
system
e. England
i. 1807: First attempt to extend public aid to parochial schools for the mass was
defeated in the House of Lords.
ii. 1870: Elementary Education Act 1870 mandated the provision of elementary
education to all but stopped short of decreeing compulsory education. The
Act could be interpreted as responses to a number of political instances, e.g.
the 1867 political reform enfranchising the working classes, the rise of the
unified Germany and the United States in the late 1860s threatened British
industrial supremacy, and the 1867 Paris Exhibition, at which English
products compared unfavorably with those of other countries.
iii. 1944: Introduction of 9-year compulsory education
2. The Thesis of the Political Construction of Mass Education
a. The rise of European model of national society
b. The rise of nation-state and the intensification of inter-state conflict
c. The Reformation in Christianity and counter-Reformation
d. The rise of the exchange economy
3. Education as a World Culture Institution
a. Ontological basis of modern education
i. primary unit: individual child
ii. organizational unit: school
iii. role unit within organization: principal, teacher and student
iv. institutional unit: nation-state
b. Structural basis of modern education
i. free, egalitarian, compulsory and rational
ii. professionalized personnel
iii. standardized and certified product
c. Legitimation basis of modern organization
i. enhances labor productivity
ii. creates good citizenship
iii. provides opportunities for self-fulfillment
iv. increase national well-being, security, political stability
v. facilitates democracy, liberty and equality
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Global education reform in the 20th century world system: A Institutionalist Framework
Levels of institution
Elements of institution
Regulative
elements
Supra-System level
Inter-state competition world system
System level
Sovereign
national welfare
state
Sector level
State controlled and hierarchically
structured mass education
Normative
elements
Cognitive
elements
National market
economy
Organizational
level
Bureaucratic, standardized, and
professional-led schools
Individual level
Group-based citizens
Global education in the 21st century world system: A Institutionalist Framework
Levels of institution
Elements of institution
Regulative
elements
Supra-System
level
Global-informational capitalist world
system
System level
De-sovereign
competition state
Sector level
Quasi-marketized and hierarchically
structured mass education
Normative
elements
Cognitive
elements
De-nationalistic
market economy
Organizational
level
Enterprising, commodified, and
market-driven schools
Individual level
Group-based consumers
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