NATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS CURRICULUM SUPPORT
Religious, Moral and
Philosophical Studies
Morality in the Modern World:
Hinduism
[INTERMEDIATE 2;
HIGHER]
Diana Keuss
The Scottish Qualifications Authority regularly reviews
the arrangements for National Qualifications. Users of
all NQ support materials, whether published by LT
Scotland or others, are reminded that it is their
responsibility to check that the support materials
correspond to the requirements of the current
arrangements.
Acknowledgement
Learning and Teaching Scotland gratefully acknowledge this contribution to the National
Qualifications support programme for RMPS. Extracts from S Cromwell Crawford, The
Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals (The University Press of Hawai’i, 2nd edition, 1982) and
from Katherine K Young’s ‘Hinduism and the ethics of weapons of mass destruction’ in Sohail
H Hashmi and Steven P Lee (eds), Ethics and Weapons of Mass Destruction: Religious and
Secular Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, 2004) are reproduced here by kind
permission of the publishers.
© Learning and Teaching Scotland 2005
This resource may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes by educational
establishments in Scotland provided that no profit accrues at any stage.
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© Learning and Teaching Scotland 2005
MORALITY IN THE MODERN WORLD – HINDUISM (INT 2/H, RMPS)
Contents
Introduction
4
Section 1:
Crime and punishment
The purpose of punishment
Capital punishment
13
13
15
Section 2:
Gender
Gender stereotyping
Economic issues
19
19
22
Section 3:
International issues
Globalisation
International aid
25
25
29
Section 4:
Medical ethics
Genetic engineering
Euthanasia
30
30
32
Section 5:
War and peace
Responses to war
Modern armaments
36
36
37
Bibliography
40
MORALITY IN THE MODERN WORLD – HINDUISM (INT 2/H, RMPS)
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INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Overview of ethical principles in Hinduism
Hindu ethics may be understood by considering the following two questions:
1.
2.
How is the world created and organised?
Who are we as humans in this world?
1.
How is the world created and organised?
First of all, from a Hindu perspective, the world we live in is an organised and ordered
place, created with design and function. There are numerous creation myths within the
Hindu tradition, but whether the world was created out of the egg1 of Brahma, or out
of the creative activity of Prajapati (as is recorded in the Rig Veda, the oldest of the
Hindu sacred texts: the Divine Hymns), there is no question that the universe, and all
life that may be found in the created order, has Divine origins. The unquestionable
divinity at the base of reality, that is, all we can and cannot see here within the created
domain, gives this world of people, animals and all life forms an unseverable
connection to the Divine. This idea of the Divine (or Divine Being) as creator and
sustainer of the whole created domain is expressed in the Yajurveda:
The loving sage beholds that Being, hidden in mystery,
wherein the universe comes to have one home;
Therein unites and therefrom emanates the whole;
The Omnipresent One pervades souls and matter like warp and woof in created
beings.
Yajurveda 32.82
In this ancient religious text, the Divine (‘that Being’) is described as the creative
source of the universe, which unites and connects both the spiritual aspects of creation
as well as the physical. Not only is the universe conceived of and brought into being
by Divine will, that very will and testament of the Divine is woven into the fabric of
creation, both the ‘soul’ or spiritual essence of existence as well as the very ‘matter’ or
physical make-up of creation.
1
Called Hiranyagarbha or Golden Egg.
As quoted in J. Ronald Engel and Joan Gibb Engel (eds), Ethics of Environment and
Development: Global Challenge, International Response (Belhaven Press, London: 1990), p.
203.
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INTRODUCTION
Much later in the Hindu evolution of influential literature, this concept remains the
same. In the Bhagavadgīt , the Lord’s Song found in the epic Māhabhārata, the god
Krishna claims:
Of all that is material and all that is spiritual in this world, know for certain that
I am both its origin and dissolution.
Bhagavadgītā 7.63
Order preserved by sacrifice (rta)
From the earliest sacred scriptures of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas, we find the
principle of rta, or Divine ethical order, which humans were obligated to uphold
through sacrifice and ceremony. The emphasis was placed on outward behaviour and
acts of penance (through sacrifice) in order to bring errant behaviour back in line with
rta. The keepers of the sacrificial ceremonies were the order of Brahman priests whose
status was higher than even the ruler’s, and whose ethical behaviour was expected to
surpass all others in the community. In this early time of Brahmanical power, the issue
of purity was of utmost importance. Behaviour and human actions either upheld and
sustained the purity of the community or else caused impurity to enter the community.
The individual was not viewed as separable from the greater body of the community.
Activity that compromised the purity of the community compromised the very
sustenance and well-being of the community because impurities brought chaos and
dissolution of the order and ethical balance of creation.
Order internalised (dharma)
Eventually, this ritualistic understanding of Divine order, rta, and the sacrificial
penance that kept the community in line with the Divine and protected from impurity,
was internalised within the individual. This internalisation is recognised during the
period of the Upanisad literature (philosophical discourses on ultimate reality and
liberation) and the word for ritualistic understanding of Divine order, rta, is replaced
with the term dharma, which has a multitude of meanings depending on the context
and situation in which the word is used. Dharma is used in the Upanisad and the later
Epic writings to harmonise the created Divine order of the outward world with the
internal make-up of an individual. The cultural emphasis still strongly favours
community over individuality, but the individual’s make-up, aptitude, skill and
spiritual capacity begin to play a much stronger role philosophically than in the early
Brahmanical days.
The Rig Veda makes reference to the way the Divine has built ethical truth and order
into the very structure of creation:
3
As quoted in Engel and Engel, Ethics of Environment and Development, p. 204.
MORALITY IN THE MODERN WORLD – HINDUISM (INT 2/H, RMPS)
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INTRODUCTION
The Vedas and the universal laws of nature which control the universe and
govern the cycles of creation and dissolution were made manifest by the Allknowing One.
Rig Veda 10:190.14
The ‘universal laws of nature’ refers to dharma and it is important to note that dharma
and all ethical codes have Divine origins. Again, in a Hindu world-view, although
sometimes the world appears chaotic, order and ethical standards have been set into
creation.
Dharma is a term rich with meaning and nuance that speaks directly to modern Hindu
ethics and morality. Dharma refers to the ‘natural law’ of things and literally contains
a root meaning of ‘hold’ as in ‘to hold something together’ so that dharma is what
ultimately governs all existence, physically and spiritually.5 Katherine Young
describes the multiple aspects of dharma this way: ‘Dharma has a range of traditional
meanings, including ethics (custom, good works, prescribed conduct, duty, virtue),
cosmic order (human action sustaining the universe), religion, justice, and law.’6 We
can see that dharma has from the earliest understanding infused and informed every
aspect of human life both socially and individually.
What we see in connection with how the world is made is that the Divine has been
involved from the beginning. Because this world is infused with Divine meaning,
there is recognised a proper way for all creation to be and behave that is woven into
the very fabric of the created order. In early times, the preparation of sacrifices kept
the community pure and in line with rta. Although this early emphasis has been
replaced with the fuller, more developed understanding of dharma, modern ethical and
moral behaviour has still been influenced by the concept of purity, and how to uphold
the purity of society. The introduction of dharma as the key to integrating created
order and personal behaviour brings the individual’s own make-up into the equation.
2.
Who are we as humans in this world?
Next, it is important to consider who we are as humans in this world. Crawford
suggests adeptly that the Hindu understanding of ethical behaviour is based on
obligations (dharma) that work externally in a social setting as well as internally in a
private setting. Ideally, there is a meeting of the external social obligations and
internal individual obligations which is reflected in the ultimate Hindu spiritual
objective, moksa (liberation).
4
As quoted in Engel and Engel, Ethics of Environment and Development, p. 204.
S. Cromwell Crawford, Hindu Bioethics for the Twenty-first Century (SUNY Press, New
York: 2003), p. 13.
6
Katherine K. Young, ‘Hinduism and the ethics of weapons of mass destruction’, in Sohail H.
Hashmi and Steven P. Lee (eds), Ethics and Weapons of Mass Destruction: Religious and
Secular Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2004), p. 281.
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INTRODUCTION
Within Hinduism there is a tension between world-affirming and world-negating
tendencies. On one hand there are the social and personal obligations that are
necessary to keep the community working fluidly. This world-affirming activity is
what we have been describing as keeping and sustaining dharma. On the other hand,
the ultimate goal within Hinduism is liberation (moksa) in which the individual
transcends both social and personal obligations (dharma) in this world and
experiences the mystical union in which the personal and Divine are brought together.
This is described in the Upanisadic literature as the oneness of Ātman (the personal)
and Brahman (the Divine or Ultimate). In the various Hindu sects, it may be described
as the oneness or realisation of the personal self or Ātman and the specific divinity one
worships, i.e. Shiva or Vishnu or the Goddess in one of her manifestations. However,
it should be noted that liberation need not be seen solely as world-negating activity.
Liberation (moksa) can be viewed as the culmination and fruition of one’s efforts to
keep the Dharma in this world.7 In this view, liberation is the natural outcome of one’s
world-affirming activities and serves as the ultimate fulfillment of one’s life course.
Legitimate human pursuits (purusārtha)
In Hinduism there are four legitimate human pursuits (purusārthas):
1.
2.
3.
4.
dharma (ethical or right behaviour)
artha (economic gain and political power)
kama (pleasure and leisure activities)
moksa (liberation)
It may seem as if these goals are pursued incrementally as one moves through the life
stages (āśrama-dharma) that are described below. However, in truth, the four pursuits
cannot be separated from dharma. As the Code of Manu points out, even if your life
stage encourages economic gain (for example, as a householder), unethical means are
never condoned.
Wealth and pleasure gained outside of virtue or righteousness must be
discarded.
Code of Manu IV.176
And although liberation (moksa) is considered to be transcendent of earthly existence
(hence beyond even dharma) it is more accurate to think of liberation as the
culmination of one’s fulfillment of dharma so that even the transcendent state of
liberation is interconnected with right earthly living.
With this in mind, the following categories will help in understanding the social and
personal ways dharma is upheld, which inform the moral and ethical structure of a
Hindu world-view. The categories move from the objective space of social ethical
7
See Crawford, Hindu Bioethics, among others.
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INTRODUCTION
obligation with life stages (aśrama-dharma), one’s birth group (varna-dharma) and
the universal ethics (sādhārana-dharma) to the subjective space of internal ethics with
purifying one’s mind and motives (cittaśuddhi) and the final goal of liberation
(moksa).8
A.
Life stages (Āśrama-dharma): the four stages of life that organise our
behaviour.
(i)
Student (brahmacārya). In this stage, the student is expected to dedicate himself
to a teacher and learning, and to avoid distractions of pleasures such as sex so
that his training is effective.
(ii) Householder (grhastya). After completing studentship, the individual is
encouraged to take a spouse, have children and take on social obligations.
However, the pleasures of passion and wealth that are pursued during this stage
must be governed by ethics and morality.
(iii) Forest-dweller (vānaprasthya). Once children are grown, the householder may
choose to retire from the social and civic duties to pursue a quieter, more
reflective spiritual path. In retirement, the forest-dweller may take his spouse
with him if she is willing.
(iv) Hermit or homeless ascetic (samnyāsin). In this final stage, the individual
renounces all ties to society and worldly concerns, including family and spouse,
in order to prepare for ultimate release (moksa). All social obligations, including
social comforts, are abandoned for an austere life of spiritual exercises and
meditation.
These stages of life reinforce the variegated aspects of dharma, which is never static
but always dynamic and appropriate to one’s stage of development. What is moral
behaviour within one stage may not be moral or ethical in another stage.
B.
Birth group duties (varna-dharma or svadharma): the four-fold varna
system, which today reflects a multitude of birth groups (jati), often referred to as
caste, and the performance of one’s own duty (svadharma) in the group that one is
born into.
As recognised from antiquity in the Hindu social stratification, there are four varna
groups which have been so categorised because of particular qualities individuals
within the group possess. The groups are as follows.
(i)
(ii)
Brahmins: the priestly order who traditionally have held most power and
responsibility within the Hindu social order.
Ksatriyas: the warrior or leaders of Hindu society.
The following outline is loosely based on Crawford’s argument in Chapter 1 of Hindu
Bioethics for the Twenty-first Century.
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INTRODUCTION
(iii) Vaiśyas: the merchants and crafts people.
(iv) Śūdras: the servants and manual labourers.
In the Bhagavadgītā, failure to uphold the Dharma, the laws and responsibilities, of
one’s particular caste results in a total social breakdown. Instead of the harmony and
order of a moral and stable society, a state of lawlessness takes hold and the moral
order is destroyed:
In the ruin of a family, its immemorial laws perish; and when the laws perish,
the whole family is overcome by lawlessness.
And when lawlessness prevails … the women of the family are corrupted … a
mixture of caste arises.
And this confusion brings the family itself to hell and those who have destroyed
it; for their ancestors fall, deprived of their offerings of rice and water.
By the sins of those who destroy a family and create a mixture of caste, the
eternal laws of the caste and the family are destroyed.
The men of the families whose laws are destroyed … Assuredly will dwell in
hell; so we have heard.9
There are caveats, however, in the strict understanding of these social groups. In the
Māhabārata it is noted:
… truth, charity, fortitude, good conduct, austerity, and compassion – he in
whom these are observed is a brāhmana. If these marks exist in a śūdra and are
not found in a twice-born [i.e. brāhmana], the śūdra is not a śūdra, nor the
brāhmana a brāhmana.
(Mbh. III.CLXXX.2.25)10
In other words, it is not enough to be born into a specific varna; one must reflect and
live out the ethical and moral expectations of that particular group. Furthermore,
Hinduism does not suggest a fatalistic attitude towards one’s placement. One’s activity
today affects one’s future and therefore despair or resignation are never valid
responses. In the same vein, however, the caste system with its hundreds of jati or
birth groups, specifically works to keep individuals in place and it has been argued
that this development is a perversion of the original varna structure.
C.
Universal ethical behaviour (sādhārana dharma or samanya dharma): the
universal/unconditional duties and ethical behaviour that is expected of all humans
regardless of station in life or class. These ten traits are listed in the Code of Manu as:
9
As quoted in S. Cromwell Crawford, The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals, 2nd edn (The
University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu: 1982), p. 60.
10
As cited in Crawford, Hindu Bioethics, p. 18.
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INTRODUCTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
steadfastness
forgiveness
application
non-appropriation (not acquiring things)
cleanliness
repression of sensuous appetites
wisdom
learning
veracity
restraint of anger
In addition to these, the highly regarded ethics of non-violence (ahimsā) and seeking
the good of all creatures (bhūtahitatva) are also considered universal ethics. As will
become clear when we look at specific ethical issues, there are differing ways one may
interpret the application an ethic such as non-violence (ahimsā).
D.
Purification of the mind (cittaśuddhi): this is when life station and class duties
become internalised in the individual so that one is not motivated by fear of retribution
should one fail in a duty. Instead, the individual is able to live the Hindu ideal of
‘detachment’ (vairāgya) in which one is not emotionally or otherwise attached to the
outcome of one’s actions but is able to perform them ‘perfectly’, without care for
results.
For example, Krishna’s advice to Arjuna in the Bhagavadgītā is that Arjuna should
perform his duty (his svadharma as a ksatriya) without attachment to the end result.
Although Arjuna is reticent to fight a war against relatives, Krishna urges him to
participate in the battle because it is his obligation, but to let go of the personal
attachment to life – both the lives of those who may die in battle and his own life – for
there is greater Truth at hand, that is, the truth of God.
This message of detachment is of utmost value in the development of Hindu ethics and
has been considered one of the five cardinal principles of Hindu ethics: purity, selfcontrol, detachment, truth and non-violence.11
These categories prepare one for the culmination or fruition of all ethical behaviour –
liberation (moksa). With the achievement of liberation one is released from the
specific duties of one’s birth group and life stage, the implicit duties of universal
ethics and the task of purifying one’s mind, and one is wholly subsumed in the
spiritual truth of unity with Brahman or a specific deity.
11
Crawford, Hindu Bioethics, p. 22.
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INTRODUCTION
Moral dilemmas
From the discussion above of the human’s place within this world and the relevance
that dharma has on ethical boundaries we can see that the question of ethical and
moral behaviour in a Hindu context is not a clear-cut one. The Hindu treatment of
ethics can be said to engage in ‘true’ moral dilemmas, that is a moral dilemma in
which two opposing sides are nearly equal in value and significance.12 The following
story of Kauśika, a hermit who had taken a vow of truth telling, illustrates the ethical
dilemma:
One day, while seated at a crossroad, this holyman was begged by a band of
fleeing travelers not to divulge their escape route to bandits in hot pursuit, with
intentions to take their lives. Kauśika did not reply. When the bandits arrived at
the scene, knowing fully well that the hermit could not tell a lie, they asked
about the travelers, and Kauśika told them the truth. The travelers were caught
and killed. Kauśika’s fate was equally sad. Though he had punctiliously
practiced virtue in order to reach heaven, he failed to achieve this goal because,
in this instance, truth telling was a violent act which emptied his store of merit.
Clearly, the demand of the situation was the overriding duty to save precious
lives, even though to effect this meant recourse to dissimulation. But Kauśika
was an absolutist who could not see that truth telling ceased being an
unconditional obligation when weighed in the balance with the need for
preserving lives.13
That the Hindu scriptures contain the glorification of warrior gods and warrior kings
whose chariots of war conquer into submission vast territories, and at the same time
contain passages of scripture lauding the ideal of non-violence (ahimsā) is a further
testament to the inconsistencies within Hindu tradition pertaining to ethical and moral
behaviour.
Question of authority
Furthermore, although there are sacred scriptures within the Hindu tradition, these
scriptures are not the sole authoritative word on Hindu ethics. In addition to the holy
scripture (the eternal ‘heard’ or sruti, i.e. the Vedas), there is the secondary scripture
(the ‘remembered’ or smrti, i.e. the Upanisads and Dharmasastras). In addition to
scripture, there are also examples of good behaviour as practised by virtuous people
(sadacara) and, finally, one’s own acquired knowledge based on lived experience
(anubhava), which can also be thought of as one’s own conscience.14
12
See S. Cromwell Crawford, Dilemmas of Life and Death: Hindu Ethics in a North American
Context (SUNY Press, Albany: 1995) and Bimal K. Matilal, ‘Moral dilemmas: insights from
Indian Epics’, in B.K. Matilal (ed.), Moral Dilemmas in the Mahabharata (Motilal
Banarsidass, New Delhi: 1989).
13
Crawford, Dilemmas of Life and Death, p. 7.
14
See Young, ‘Hinduism and the ethics of weapons of mass destruction’, p. 282.
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INTRODUCTION
There is a distinction made between dharma (ethics, law, religion, natural order) and
what can be called legal processes (vyavahāra). The Hindu tradition speaks of a
gradual moral/ethical disintegration that began at the conception of the created
universe. The dharma was infused in the very construction of the universe, and human
behaviour influences the general well-being of the created order. When humans failed
to uphold the Dharma, there came the need for further clarification and processes in
which the Dharma could be recognised and upheld. This clarification came in the
form of the Dharmaśatras and smriti literature, such as the well-known Code of Manu
(Manusmriti). However, this dharma literature was not codified law, nor was it meant
to be used as such. It was written to reinforce and in some ways remind society of
guidelines for proper behaviour and provide appropriate sanctions in the event of
transgression. There is no line drawn between law and religion in the traditional
scripture and literature of Hinduism. It should be noted that the modern state of India
does not operate within the guidelines of dharma, but has adopted the Western judicial
model of governance.
Wrapped into the human obligations surrounding upholding the Dharma is the
concept of karma. Not only does the individual who neglects the Dharma injure the
society and possibly contribute to the overall loss of dharma in societal consciousness,
but that individual also brings misfortune to his/her own existence. The misfortune or
negative karma may affect the outcome of the individual’s current life, next life, or
both, depending on the nature of the action (or omission). This gave rise to the concept
of doing penance for one’s misdeeds to atone for the karma incurred for a particular
crime or sin.
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
Section 1: Crime and punishment
The purpose of punishment: On what grounds can punishment be
morally justified?
Punishment (Dandanīti)
Dandanīti (from dhanda, ‘force’ or ‘punishment’) refers to the application of
punishment, the responsibility to enforce societal Dharma with the force necessary to
be effective.
In the structured Hindu society, the responsibility for upholding order and justice lies
with the rulers, warriors or governors (ksatriya). It is their duty as defined by their
caste and birth group (svadharma) to enforce the laws and norms of society in order to
protect society from falling into chaos and immorality. In the Code of Manu, there is a
passage which describes how the responsibilities of the king or rulers is tantamount to
Divine authority for it is from the Lord, or God, that judgement comes:
For (the king’s) sake, the Lord in ancient times emitted the Rod of Punishment,
his own son, (the incarnation of) Justice, to be the protector of all living beings,
made of the brilliant energy of ultimate reality. Through fear of him all living
beings, stationary and moving, allow themselves to be used and do not swerve
from their own duty. Upon men who persist in behaving unjustly he should
inflict the punishment they deserve, taking into consideration realistically (the
offender’s) power and learning and the time and place. The Rod is the king and
the man, he is the inflictor and the chastiser, traditionally regarded as the
guarantor for the duty of the four stages of life. The Rod alone chastises all
subjects, the Rod protects them, the Rod stays awake while they sleep; wise men
know that justice is the Rod.
Code of Manu 7.14–1815
Also in the Code of Manu there is this warning of what would happen to society if the
king did not follow through with his responsibility of punishment (danda):
15
The Laws of Manu, trans. Wendy Doniger, with Brian K. Smith (Penguin Books,
Harmondsworth: 1991), as quoted in Michael L. Hadley (ed.), The Spiritual Roots of
Restorative Justice (SUNY Press, New York: 2001), p. 148.
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
If the king did not, without tiring, inflict punishment on those worthy to be
punished, the stronger would roast the weaker, like fish on a spit.
The crow would eat the sacrificial cake and the dog would lick the sacrificial
viands, and ownership would not remain with any one, the lower ones would
(usurp the place of) the higher ones.
The whole world is kept in order by punishment, for a guiltless man is hard to
find; through fear of punishment the whole world yields the enjoyments (which
it owes).
Code of Manu 7.20–2216
In the Māhabārata, there is an explanation for how force (danda) is recognised among
the caste groups:
The danda of the Brahmin (priest) is executed through the power of the word,
the danda of the Ksatriya (warrior, ruler) through the physical strength of his
arm, the danda of the Vaisya (artisans, merchants, farmers) through the giving
of material goods. The Śudra (serving class) does not have any danda.
Māhabhārata 12, 25, 917
In the stratified birth group system, the only group permitted to use physical force is
the ruling or leadership group (ksatriya). However, the Brahmin also have a role in the
distribution of punishment that is (or should be) complementary to the ruling of the
king. To reiterate, civic duties and religious duties are blurred in a proper Hindu
community so that a crime is comparable to a sin, a transgression. Thus, the religious
elite play a part in the interpretation of appropriate punishment and the way in which
the offender may atone for his/her sin/transgression in order to control the damage
measured out by karma. Performing penance works on two levels for the transgressor:
(1) it ‘makes right’ his/her actions against society so that he/she may be restored to a
proper place within the community, and (2) it works to burn up the karma that has
accumulated so as to restrict the severity of damage done by the individual to the life
ahead, both this one and the one(s) to come. From the Code of Manu comes this
description of doing penance for one’s transgressions:
Whatever is hard to pass over, hard to get, hard to reach, or hard to do, all that
can be achieved by inner heat, for inner heat is hard to surpass. Those who have
committed major crimes and all the rest who have done what should not be done
are freed from that guilt by well-generated heat.
Code of Manu 11.239–24018
16
As quoted in Crawford, The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals, p. 56.
As quoted in Michael von Brück, ‘War and peace in Hinduism’, in Perry Schmidt-Leukel
(ed.), War and Peace in World Religions (SCM Press, London: 2004), p. 23.
18
Ron Neufeldt, ‘Justice in Hinduism’, in Hadley, The Spiritual Roots of Restorative Justice,
p. 152.
17
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CRIME AND PUNISHMENT
The ‘well-generated heat’ is the effect of the act of penance that works to ‘burn’ up the
accumulated karma.19 It is karma that both determines the future outcome of this life
and influences the kind of rebirth one has in the future. More importantly, from a
religious standpoint, it is karma that keeps one bound to this cycle of death and rebirth
(samsāra) instead of allowing the ātman its liberation from the cycle of samsāra by
realising its identity with Brahman, or the Ultimate, or God.
Punishment is therefore a moral duty demanded of a Hindu society on three levels:
1.
2.
3.
responsibility (svadharma) of the king (ksatriya)
care towards protecting the order and purity of society
care towards the spiritual well-being of the transgressor.
Attitudes towards punishment in a modern Hindu context
It is important to understand that modern India is not governed by Hindu sacred texts;
there is a secular Hindu government. India has largely adopted the judicial system of
Britain and therefore operates in line with the Western judicial model. Therefore, the
task of punishment no longer rests on a particular caste or birth group (varna), but in
elected government officials. Nevertheless, the importance of keeping peace through
ethical treatment of criminals is reflected in modern India. Gandhi advocated a
rehabilitation program for criminals that was certainly influenced by traditional Hindu
values of caring for both the safety and order of society, but also the restoration and
well-being of the transgressor. However, Gandhi’s vision has not been adopted by the
modern correctional system which is primarily based on a Western internment and
punishment model.
Capital punishment: Is capital punishment morally justifiable?
Classical Hindu texts that condone capital punishment
Capital punishment is evident in the Dharma literature that we have been using to
identify a moral ground for punishment.
The king, according to his duty (svadharma), assigned a punishment for the crime
committed that would bring restoration to the society. The graver the crime
committed, the graver the punishment. From Manu there is this description:
19
Neufeldt, ‘Justice in Hinduism’, p. 152.
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[The king] should impose a fine in direct proportion to the amount of pain
caused when someone strikes men or animals to give them pain. When a part of
the body has been injured, a wound inflicted, or blood shed, [the assailant] must
pay [the victim] what it costs to restore him to health, or he may pay the whole
[cost to the king] as a fine.
Code of Manu 8: 286–28720
As for issues that affect the state and stability of society, the crime of theft is one of
the most severe and may merit the death penalty. As is stated in the Arthaśāstra, the
document detailing the proper governance of the state:
… those who steal or seize valuable articles or jewels from State mines or
manufacturers should be simply sentenced to death.21
When the crime offends religious law or Dharma, the religious authorities may also
levy severe penance against the offender which, although not actively violent towards
the offender, still accomplishes the same end as corporeal punishment. For example,
the sins/crimes of killing a Brahmin, drinking fermented liquor or defiling the bed of a
guru called for the penance of suicide on the part of the offender. Should the offender
be unwilling to undergo the penance, the king’s authority would be summoned and the
death penalty enforced.
Sexual misconduct is another crime that could threaten the stability of the community
and society at large, as it compromises the ethic of purity on a number of levels. The
sanctity and purity of a marriage is compromised when one partner breaks the
marriage vows. Furthermore, the very fabric of the caste system itself may become
tainted by the mixing of individuals from different caste or birth groups (varna).
In the Āpastamba Prasna II, (Patala 10, Khanda 27.9) it is stated:
A Sūdra (who commits adultery) with a woman of one of the first three castes
shall suffer capital punishment.22
Hindu texts that are against capital punishment
If you want to see the brave, look at those who can forgive. If you want to see
the heroic, look at those who can love them in return for hatred.
Bhagavadgītā
.
20
As quoted in Hadley, The Spiritual Roots of Restorative Justice, p. 149.
Ibid, p. 150.
22
http://hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/dharma/apa0227.htm
21
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The Māhabhārata argues against the use of the death penalty in a dialogue between
King Dyumatsena and his son Prince Satyavan (Chapter 257 of the Santiparva). In this
scene a number of men had been brought out for execution at the command of the
king.
Prince Satyavan then says ‘Sometimes virtue assumes the form of sin and sin assumes
the form of virtue. It is not possible that the destruction of individuals can ever be
virtuous.’
King Dyumatsena replies: ‘If the spring of those who should be killed be virtuous, if
robbers be spared, Satyavan, all distinction between virtue and vice will disappear.’
Satyavan responds: ‘Without destroying the body of the offender, the king should
punish him as ordained by the scriptures. The king should not act otherwise,
neglecting to reflect upon the character of the offence and upon the science of
morality. By killing the wrongdoer the King kills a large number of his innocent men.
Behold by killing a single robber, his wife, mother, father and children, all are killed.
When injured by wicked persons, the king should therefore think seriously on the
question of punishment. Sometimes a wicked person is seen to imbibe good conduct
from a pious man. It is seen that good children spring from wicked persons. The
wicked should not therefore be exterminated. The extermination of the wicked is not
in consonance with the eternal law.’23
The argument posed here in the Māhabhārata suggests that capital punishment is
excessive in that it brings down the innocent with the guilty, for to kill the head of a
household also effectively ‘kills’ his entire family by taking away their economic
support. Furthermore, capital punishment, unless accepted spiritually by the
transgressor, does not give room for a future expiation of the bad karma incurred by
the crime. It acts as merely further violence against dharma and not proper or ethical
punishment.
The modern Hindu viewpoint of capital punishment
Again, as the majority of the Hindu community lives in the secular state of India, the
traditional scriptures surrounding capital punishment are not authoritative. Capital
punishment is a lawful sentence option in modern Indian law, although it is rarely
carried out. The most recent capital punishment sentence was against Dara Singh in
2004 for the murders of an Australian Christian missionary and his two sons in 1999
while they were sleeping. Singh is still awaiting execution. Dhananjoy Chatterjee, 39,
who was sentenced to death for raping and murdering a 14-year-old girl in Kolkata in
1990, was hanged at dawn on 14 August 2004 at the Alipore Central Jail in
Souce: Religions and the Death Penalty, Amnesty International – British Section,
http://members.magnet.at/ai.dornbirn/rel-dp.htm#hindu
23
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Kolkata where he had spent the last 13 years in solitary confinement. It was the
country’s first execution since 1995. The assassin of the country’s independence
leader, Mahatma Gandhi, and the assassin of former prime minister, Indira Gandhi,
were among those executed in the past 50 years.24
24
http://www.indolink.com/displayArticleS.php?id=081304102908
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Section 2: Gender
Gender stereotyping: Is the stereotyping of male and female roles
morally justifiable?
Generally speaking, the Hindu view of male and female roles has consistently
supported strong stereotyping (with few exceptions). Although the stereotypes have
not historically remained consistent, it seems clear that females and males were
created for different tasks, and sometimes, depending on the scripture, for different
levels of respect and value.
Historical/scriptural basis for stereotyping male and female roles
In ancient times, the role and status of women was thought to be a highly lauded one,
and certainly differentiated from the male. The woman was unique in her ability to
procreate and she was held in reverence for this ability. The earliest excavation sites in
India have produced idols and figurines of goddesses. and artifacts that indicate the
reverence for the female.
Indian goddesses have held great and unique channels of power in the pantheon of
gods. Often goddesses possess a greater power for destruction than their male
counterparts and have been summoned by a male god to engage an enemy. An
example of this is Kālī who is married to Śiva. Kālī is a ferocious appearing goddess
whose destructive force is great, but once she unleashes her power, she has the
potential to become wreckless, unable to control her own destructive powers. She
depends on Śiva to keep her contained – he helps her regulate her powers so that she
does not breach the ethic of purity.25 This example can be seen as a portrayal of
traditional Hindu views towards men and women. Together they provide a balance of
power and efficiency. Women are thought to run the risk of compromising their own
purity, or the purity of the social group surrounding them, so they need man’s
protection and control. Thus, the issue is not one solely of power, but of the
interdependence of the sexes. They both need each other.
In the Upanisadic literature, when the Brahmanical priest’s power was beginning to be
questioned, there are examples of women who are admitted to the philosophical
25
Lindsey Harlan and Paul B. Courtright (eds.), From the Margins of Hindu Marriage (Oxford
University Press, Oxford, New York: 1995), p. 10.
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discussions of the Vedic texts, and allusions to women teachers.26 One of the bestknown and often quoted descriptions of Brahman (or the Ultimate/God) in the
Brhadāranyaka Upanisad is a result of the persistent intuitive questioning of Gārgī to
her husband. Additionally, women were given the freedom to pursue learning outside
the household, including that of the spiritual texts, the Vedas, which would be the
pinnacle of knowledge in Hindu culture.27 In other words, although Hindu teachers
(including the influential philosopher Śankara) later curtailed the educational rights of
women and made these exclusive to men, this particular stereotype has not been
recognised throughout all of Hindu thought.
Generally speaking, the Dharma literature, including the Code of Manu, and also part
of the Epic literature, such as the Mahābhārata, view women as inferior physically,
morally and spiritually:
(When creating them) Manu allotted to women (a love of their) bed, (of their)
seat and (of) ornament, impure desires, wrath, dishonesty, malice and bad
conduct.
For women no (sacramental) rite (is performed) with sacred texts, thus the law is
settled; women (who are) destitute of strength and destitute of (the knowledge
of) Vedic texts, (are as impure as) falsehood (itself), that is a fixed rule.28
Code of Manu 9.17–18
As inferior, they must always be kept in line by their fathers, husbands or sons:
Her father protects (her) in childhood, her husband protects (her) in youth, and
her sons protect (her) in old age; a woman is never fit for independence.29
Code of Manu 9.3
Although Manu is critical of women’s nature, these texts are not written as excuses to
abuse women as much as they are written as warnings that women and men both have
a place and responsibility that must be recognised for their to be harmony in the
family unit. In counterbalance to the negative texts, Manu also includes this injunction
to men to care for the women in their lives:
Women must be honoured and adorned by their fathers, brothers, husbands, and
brothers-in-law, who desire (their own) welfare.
Where women are honoured, there the gods are pleased; but where they are not
honoured, no sacred rite yields rewards.
26
See Crawford, The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals, p. 45.
Ibid, p. 45.
28
As quoted in Crawford, The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals, p. 66.
29
As quoted in Crawford, The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals, p. 45.
27
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Where the female relations live in grief, the family soon wholly perishes; but
that family where they are not unhappy ever prospers.
The houses on which female relations, not being duly honoured, pronounce a
curse, perish completely, as if destroyed by magic.
Code of Manu 3.55–60
It is obvious that, in most of the Hindu religious literature, women’s and men’s roles
in the fabric of society are differentiated according to their abilities, both physically
and spiritually.
However, there is an exemplary speech in the Mahābhārata made by Sītā, the wife of
Rāma (held to be one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu), who is regarded even today
as one of the pinnacles of womanhood. Rāma tells her that he must remove himself to
the forest in banishment but that she may remain safely in their household to await his
eventual return. She is vehemently opposed to this idea and retorts:
A fine speech you have made, O Knower of dharma. It is to me a strange
doctrine that a wife is diverse from her husband and that his duty is not hers, and
that she has no right to share in it. I can never accept it. I hold that your fortunes
are mine, and if Rama has to go to the forest, the command includes Seeta also,
who is part of him … Do not think me obstinate. My father and mother have
instructed me in dharma. What you tell me is totally opposed to what they have
taught me. To go with you wherever you go – that is my only course.30
Thus they both enter the forest banishment period together to be tested through many
adventures. Again, the Hindu ethic of interdependence and commitment to one’s
spouse is the general message of this speech. Sītā’s speech exemplifies that women
possess strong ethical and moral understanding – Sītā’s grasp of dharma is superior to
Rāma’s in this scenario as he has underestimated Sītā’s capabilities and faithfulness to
him. Sītā’s desire to stay connected to Rāma’s destiny is the perfect embodiment of
the Hindu ideal that people are dependent on one another. This marriage of Sītā and
Rāma showcases both female and male strengths as bound together and is the pinnacle
example of social interdependence.
Modern views of women
Modern Indian/Hindu thinking has again attempted to overcome the erroneous,
damaging stereotyping which places women at the mercy of male institutional
treatment. However, even the modern Indian constitutional law has not been able to
completely reverse some of the heinous treatment of women. There is still a very high
rate of girl babies either aborted or abandoned at birth as they are considered
30
As quoted in Crawford, The Evolution of Hindu Ethical Ideals, pp. 68–69.
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undesirable and burdensome to the family. Although women have been given the
constitutional right to divorce, this right has often been used against women to sever a
marriage that is unsatisfactory to the husband. The dowry system that is culturally
imbedded in Hindu practice of marrying a daughter into another family has been
abused to the point of actually holding the daughter/wife to ransom (threatening
violence to her) if increased demands for money or goods are not met. And many
wives are murdered as a way for the husband to get out of a marriage commitment. All
of this behaviour would transgress current Indian law, and furthermore would be
condemned by most interpretation of Hindu ethics, but it can be argued that the
stereotyping of male and female roles in society has given rise to this culturally
accepted behaviour.
Economic issues: Will economic equality between the sexes lead to a
more just society?
People are not created equal
Generally speaking, equality based on economics has never been a recognised reality
in the Hindu world-view. With the specific historic examples of groups such as Arya
Samaj who have pushed a social reform agenda, the Hindu world-view has never tried
to impose any aspect of equality. As detailed below, the basic Hindu understanding of
the world is that people are not created equal and no amount of desire or structure will
change this reality.
Birth group and caste (varna)
In the Hindu world-view, reinforced by adherence to the varna system, there is a
strong sense that people are not equal but find themselves in the social order according
to their spiritual development and general aptitude, and by the karmic build-up of their
past lives.
As outlined in the Introduction, the caste and birth group system in India has early
origins in the creation myth of Purusa. The Divine Person, Purusa, categorised people
into four different types according to their spiritual awareness and natural abilities.
Although varna makes no differentiation between the sexes, the point made by this
myth is that people are not equal and do not have the same roles and abilities, but
possess differing degrees of purity, ability and spirituality according to their nature
(guna). Thus, the priest (Brahmin) group was thought to possess a high level of purity
and goodness (sattva guna) so their responsibilities included interpreting the scriptures
and providing a living example of moral/ethical behaviour. The warrior and political
leaders (ksatriya) were thought to possess high levels of energy (rajas guna) so were
people of action. The merchants and trades people (vaiśyas) were thought to have
more slowness and darkness (tamas guna) in their nature and thus worked
methodically and relied on good leadership. The servants (śudras) did not possess any
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significant quantity of any guna and therefore were thought to be particularly adapted
for service to others. The myth may be interpreted as an explanation of why
differences exist between people, but the intention was not to place people on different
spheres of advantage, economic and social, as the modern caste system operates.31
Accumulated actions and intentions (karma)
The actions and decisions a person makes create a very personal trajectory of karmic
results. This works to further differentiate each person’s spiritual abilities, character
traits and general station in life. Again, karma originally did not influence the
differentiation between male and female, although historically it has been used to
subjugate women to a lesser plain of creation and hold the male as a preferred
incarnation. As the prejudice against women grew, it was thought that only as a male
could one move towards the ultimate goal of Hindu spirituality, that of liberation
(moksa). The four stages of life (āśrama-dharma) reflect this development, for
liberation is culturally, although not originally, set aside for males only.
Equality in the spiritual realm
Although it is clear that, within Hinduism in general, one should not look for or expect
equality among people as this is not the social or created reality, there is, however, in
religious terms, a notion of equality that is expressed in different ways. First of all,
there is the understanding that, in the ultimate scheme of things, the earthly or physical
distinctions between people are not ‘reality’ but the illusion (maya) of appearance. All
souls find refuge in the oneness or unity of Brahman, or God, and thus the social and
gendered differentiations between humans are ultimately false and misleading.
Furthermore, the devotional (bhakti) tradition within Hinduism has been a way in
which any person, male or female, and from any social standing (even a servant or
śudra), can work towards spiritual freedom. In the Bhagavadgītā, Krishna states:
I am the same towards all beings; to me none is hateful or dear.
Bhagavadgītā 9.29
These are examples in which distinctions like gender make no difference whatsoever
in the ultimate matters of existence. But the question at hand is whether or not equality
in the economic marketplace of society is a proper or valid ideal. It is clear that the
Hindu culture and religious scriptures have not historically seen equality in the social
environment as a proper or even desirable goal.
31
See Crawford, Hindu Bioethics for the Twenty-first Century, pp. 17–18.
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Modern Hindu interpretation of equality
The Hindu reform movement, Arya Samaj, is one example of a religious group which
lobbies for the equality of all human beings, outcast and high caste, men and women.
Thus, the religious ideal of unity and equality is brought into the everyday social
environment and has the potential to powerfully reform expectations surrounding
gender and caste.
The Indian parliament made wage discrimination illegal with the Equal Renumeration
Act of 1976, and India has signed Article 11 of the Convention for the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, which specifically addresses
discrimination in the workplace; however, there has been serious breach of this law
until even the present day. As Ashok Aggarwal, legal advocate of women and children
in the workplace, has noted, the cases have only increased as more women enter the
workplace, and few ever petition for their constitutional rights.32
Furthermore, because of the cultural and social attitudes towards women, which
involve protection and mistrust, the majority of upper-class women do not enter the
job market. Only lower-class/caste women find it economically necessary to enter the
job market, and generally they have not received equal pay to their male colleagues.
However, as indicated above, they have not actively petitioned for their right to it. An
exception is the recent ruling by the Delhi High Court in favour of women workers at
a cooperative store, who filed a complaint under the Equal Pay Act for performing
similar work to male colleagues but receiving less pay. Unfortunately, this type of
petition by women is infrequent.
Frontline: India’s National Magazine, from the publishers of The Hindu, vol. 21, issue 20,
25 Sept–8 Oct 2004, online copy
32
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Section 3: International issues
Globalisation: Is the process of globalisation morally justifiable?
The precise meaning of the term ‘globalisation’ is not universally agreed; there is
therefore great debate among modern Hindu groups as to its beneficial and harmful
effects.
Globalisation as exploitation
For those who view globalisation as a tool by which powerful nations exert economic
and environmental dominance over developing, or otherwise less powerful, nations, it
is a term which describes some of the biggest violations of ethics and moral behaviour
in the world today. The following arguments hold that globalisation is essentially
harmful and unethical.
(1) Exploitation of people. There is within the modern trend of Hindu thought an
ethic which denigrates all exploitation of human beings. A prominent voice supporting
this view was M. K. Gandhi’s, who included in his definition of non-violence
(ahimsā) the ideal of ‘non-exploitation’. Gandhi defined non-exploitation in the
publication Young India on 4 November1926 as ‘the abstention from causing
suffering out of evil purposes’.33 By this he indicated that it is unethical to gain wealth
at the expense of others. He also argued that we have an obligation to the immediate
social context to ensure that it satisfies basic human needs including education,
medicine and housing.
Recall the face of the poorest and weakest man whom you may have seen and
ask yourself if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him. Will he
gain anything by it? Will it restore him to control over his own life and destiny?
In other words, will it lead to Swaraj34 for the hungry and spiritually starving
millions?
Gandhi35
Unto Tähtinen, Ahimsā: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition (Rider, London: 1976), p. 119.
Swaraj literally means ‘self-rule’ and was introduced by Gandhi as both a political term
declaring India’s self-rule in place of British rule and a term for the moral and ethical control
one exerts over oneself. This term is similar to swadeshi, which was also used by Gandhi for
political ends and ethical regeneration.
35
As quoted in R. Upadhyay, ‘Globalisation versus Swadeshi – A tricky problem for
Vajpayee’, The Hindu, 7 August 2000, available online.
33
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India’s economic trend since its loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in
1991 has been one of increasing globalisation. And, although there has been steady
economic growth and a decrease in inflation, there has also been ‘an unambiguous
increase in inequality in Indian economy over the last two decades’ that has seen the
gap between the upper-class wealthier communities and the poorer communities
widen.36 Wage earners have suffered while the larger business sector and professional
community has prospered.
(2) Hindu values (swadeshi). Swadeshi is the current political buzzword that has been
used in many different ways by parties angling for specific Hindu support of their
policies. First brought to the political realm by Gandhi, the term literally means ‘from
one’s own country’ or ‘native’ and was used by Gandhi to gain nationalist support
against the British in the fight for independence. Swadeshi was used by Gandhi to
protest against the consumption of foreign manufactured goods (for example,
Manchester textiles) in favour of goods produced at home in India.37
The BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party), who took political control in 1998, has touted a
nationalistic agenda and used the term swadeshi to refer to a particular Hindu
approach (Hindutva or Hindu Way) to economic policy making which includes the
possibility of certain globalisation allowances. As they stated:
[A] swadeshi of a self-confident, hardworking modern nation that can deal with
the world on terms of equality … India must liberalise, industrialise and
modernise – but it must do so the Indian way.
BJP 199238
(3) Evils of consumerism. Rampant consumerism is seen as a particularly Western
cultural disease by many Hindu Indians and there is a fear that consumerism must
accompany any form of globalisation. The RSS (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh or
National Volunteers Organisation), a political party with ties to the BJP but with a
more aggressive nationalistic agenda, has made specific statements against
‘liberalisation’ and ‘globalisation’. In 1992 it listed 362 products produced by
multinational corporations that the consumer should avoid; the ‘true patriot’ should
instead choose the local alternative. The reason stated for why consumers should
choose the local product was to avoid the contamination of culture through ‘Western-
Shampa Biswas, ‘To be modern …’, in Mary Anne Tetreault and Robert A. Denmark (eds),
Gods, Guns and Globalisation: Religious Radicalism and International Political Economy, An
International Political Economy Yearbook, Vol. 13, (Lynne Reinner, London/Boulder: 2004)
p. 121.
37
Ibid., p. 118.
38
Ibid., p. 117.
36
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style consumption’.39 Here is an example of an ancient Hindu ethic of purity brought
into a modern context.
The BJP has made the following statement in which it re-emphasises the Hindu values
that must be kept at the forefront of any modernisation that India might choose:
The efforts of all economists and multinationals of the world will not be able to
achieve the tiger-isation of India if we lose sight of our ethical base, our
inheritance, or Dharma …
Avandi 1995
In other words, no amount of money alone will make India a great nation and worldcontender. India must retain its Hindu identity and particular ethical code if it seeks a
position with the powerful nations of the world.
(4) Exploitation of the environment. Exploiting the environment or nature has long
been a concern of Hindu ethical teaching and thinking. Nothing is considered
independent of other aspects of reality. People are connected to each other and to
nature. To abuse nature out of greed or pure economic gain is a violation of the ancient
Hindu ethics of interconnectedness and unity. Nature sustains the human existence and
ought to be revered and respected for such a task. In the ancient scriptures, this respect
took the form of divinising aspects of nature such as the Earth.
The Hymn to Earth (Prithivī):
O Earth, thy centre and thy navel, all forces that have issued from thy body – Set
us amid those forces; breathe upon us. I am the son of Earth, Earth is my
Mother.
Atharvaveda 12.3540
But even without treating nature as a separate divinity, the Hindu attitude towards
nature has continually been one of respect; for nature itself is animated and alive,
although differently from humans and animals, and connected to the Divine as part of
the created order. Thus, nature is infused with the Divine, as are humans and other
parts of creation. Crawford describes the Hindu attitude towards the environment as
one of ‘deep ecology’ where people are seen to be ‘in’ nature, instead of an attitude of
‘shallow ecology’ in which people are considered to be ‘over’ nature.41 Thus, polluting
Biswas, ‘To be modern …’, p. 123.
As quoted in Crawford, Dilemmas of Life and Death, p. 171.
41
Crawford, Dilemmas of Life and Death, p. 171.
39
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the air and water for manufacturing reasons (economic gain) would be viewed as
unethical.
Globalisation as cooperation and opportunity
There are other groups that view ‘globalisation’ as the great chance for all nations to
benefit in like manner from each other’s expertise and technological advances. Here
are two Hindu arguments in favour of globalisation.
(1) Economic gain (artha). The pursuit of wealth and economic gain (artha) is one of
the four appropriate human goals (purusartha) and is sanctioned within Hindu ethics.
Furthermore, traditionally, the king or political leader had a moral responsibility
toward his subjects to increase the wealth of the kingdom and so provide economic
and political stability to the state. The king’s subjects were not able to properly pursue
the fullness of all human goals (purusartha) if they did not enjoy a stable and strong
social economy. Included in the four human goals is the ultimate spiritual
accomplishment of liberation (moksa).
(2) Benefit to society. Despite political statements made to the contrary (see the RSS
and BJP statements above), most political groups are actually in favour of a measure
of globalisation as it has brought benefits to India’s economy as a whole (with a
caveat of the issue of inequality noted above). In other words, although much of the
political rhetoric is negative, the reality of loosening India’s trade allowances,
deregulation, modernisation and globalisation clearly points to a stronger India in the
world market. And it can be argued that, although there is still inequality, given
enough time and growth, these internal issues will also be corrected. Again, the BJP
has stated:
BJP welcomes foreign investment because we hold it supplies knowledge,
technology and know-how and sharpens the quality and competitive edge of our
economy … BJP stands for a modern and progressive India, open to new ideas,
new technology and fresh capital.42
42
Biswas, ‘To be modern …’, p. 125.
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International aid: Is international aid an appropriate moral
response to world poverty?
Generally speaking, there is not much scriptural basis for an international response to
poverty or other worldwide problems. This is probably because most Hindu scripture
was written for a Hindu audience in a particular place/territory and concentrated on the
proper working of an insulated Hindu community. The global attitude was not a
realistic one. However, the following remarks suggest that generosity is a favoured
ethic, and international aid is certainly an appropriate response.
(1) Scriptural references. The Arthashāstra 2.136 advises that a ruler should not tax
subjects who are suffering from famine.43 And the Manusmirti states that, when
pursuing artha, one ought to hold fast to wealth and abhor poverty. This is because
material wealth and well-being are conducive to promoting spiritual and moral
growth, while poverty is a hindrance to this development.44
(2) Religious leadership. Historically, the wealthy in Hindu society would give a
share of their material goods to the poor in their communities. Hindu religious leaders
today follow this example by distributing food and clothing to the poor and in doing
so provide a ‘good example’ for others to do so as well.45 Although this practice of
giving to the poor has traditionally been confined to one’s own community, it can be
extrapolated to the world community based on both a new global awareness and the
fact that Hindu communities are no longer situated solely within the territory of India
(and surrounding nations) but are scattered around the world.
(3) Interdependence and stability. The ethic of interdependence is deeply woven
into Hindu sensibility. The welfare of others always affects the welfare of oneself.
Thus, creating stability around one’s own territory or country is another way of
creating stability for one’s own country. Easing the poverty of other nations can be
seen as a safeguard for peace and stability at home.
(4) Karma. Generating good karma through acts of generosity, kindness and
compassion may provide incentive for foreign aid work.
43
Peggy Morgan and Clive Lawton (eds), Ethical Issues in Six Religious Traditions
(Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh: 1996), p. 47.
44
Ibid., p. 48.
45
Ibid., p. 48.
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Section 4: Medical ethics
Genetic engineering: Can any forms of human genetic engineering
be morally justified?
As S. Cromwell Crawford points out, Hindu ethics distinguishes between ‘somatic cell
gene therapy’ and ‘enhancement genetic engineering’.46 This distinction allows for
some, but not all, forms of genetic engineering as ethical Hindu pursuits.
Somatic cell gene therapy
Some diseases are directly linked to a defect in a particular gene (for example, sicklecell anaemia, haemophilia and Gaucher disease). The treatment of the defective gene
results in a cure from the disease. An example of such treatment is the case of Ashanti
‘Ashi’ De Silva who was afflicted by ‘severe combined immunodeficiency’ (SCID)
which rendered her immune system unable to fight off infection. Her stem cells
located in her bone marrow were treated and she is now effectively cured of SCID and
lives a normal life.
Hindu ethics may be said to support this kind of treatment on the basis of the
following three principles.
(1) Principle of beneficence: generally speaking, within a Hindu framework of
valuing life, what is beneficial for the patient is considered ethically good.
(2) Principle of obligation: there is within the Hindu social understanding a sense of
obligation to preserve the existing society as well as making provision for the welfare
of future generations.
(3) Principle of life: although death is not considered an anomaly but part of the
rhythm of life itself, Hindu medical texts and practices work to avoid premature death
as this would infringe on the general principle of life. Hindu ethics of medicine
endeavour to preserve life when viable.
46
This distinction and the following arguments within each category are suggested by
Crawford in Hindu Bioethics for the Twenty-first Century, Chapter 10.
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Enhancement genetic engineering
When gene therapy is given to ‘healthy’ individuals who wish to gain a special
characteristic or enhanced ability, the practice can be called ‘enhancement genetic
engineering’. An example of such a therapy, which has been used in a growing
number of cases, is the administration of the human growth hormone. Originally, this
hormone was used to treat children whose height was significantly impaired and who
were diagnosed with ‘dwarfism’. However, this hormone treatment has now been
bought and used by the wealthy for children who may only reach average height but
wish to be above average. Another gene therapy currently in the research stage is one
that would enhance intelligence and memory abilities. In the laboratory, mice that
have received the treatment have performed significantly better than their ‘normal’
counterparts and it seems only a matter of time before this treatment is on the general
market for humans.
Crawford lists a number of reasons why enhancement gene therapy might be
problematic for a Hindu ethic.
(1) Spiritual improvement. The Hindu understanding of ‘self-improvement’
concentrates on the inner self, the ātman, rather than the cosmetic aspects of a body or
brain. Putting one’s energy and resources into improving the physical performance is
folly itself. There is no purchase power for spiritual progress; this kind of
‘improvement’ comes only from rigorous practice and spiritual attunement and
certainly cannot be bought.
(2) Karma. There is a strong sense of cause and result in the Hindu framework of
human activity. Karma, once generated, must work itself out and humans are not
usually privy to the nuance and avenues of how it may happen. For example, although
enhancement gene therapy is appealing, who can tell what side-effects may result? In
a case where an individual is plagued with sickness and the possibility of premature
death, one might choose a therapy and take the risk of side-effects that may not be as
drastic as the sickness itself. However, this same risk for ‘healthy’ individuals may not
be the wise choice.
(3) Balance. In the Hindu Āyurvedic view of health, there is a strong principle of
balance. When one begins to work on one aspect of human health, one needs to be
aware that such activity could possibly cause a severe backlash from another health
perspective. Enhancing the intelligence and memory of the brain may give advanced
performance, but who can tell what will be pushed to the side to make way for this
performance. The individual’s kindness? His/her ability for sensitivity?
(4) Diversity. Hinduism has from the earliest time valued diversity over homogeneity.
If people begin choosing gene therapy to keep up with a perceived standard, be it
appearance based or performance based, the diversity within creation
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may suffer. Hindu sensibilities have recognised the value of diversity within the
created order to guide one along the spiritual path.
Euthanasia: Can any forms of euthanasia be morally justified?
Views of life
Generally speaking, the Hindu ethic for life is to preserve it. The medical treatises of
Hindu antiquity, including the Āyurvedic and Yoga literature, are based on a great
tradition of ancient wisdom that has concentrated on how to improve and preserve
human health and life. Further, unnecessarily taking of life, whether human, animal or
even plant, is contrary to the general ethic of well-being or kindness (jivadaya)
towards others, and non-violence (ahimsā) towards all life, that is characteristic of a
Hindu stance.
Views of death
In Hinduism, the opposite of life is not death but rebirth, as it is this tie to the samsāric
round of birth and rebirth that is truly painful in the ultimate scheme of things.
Therefore, one has less reason to fear and avoid the reality of death and passing on.
Eventually, if one continues to improve spiritually and morally, one passes out of the
realm of birth and death (samsāra) – or this earthly existence – altogether and joins
the Ultimate. It is a mistake to view this realm of birth, death and rebirth as offering a
promise of permanence or sustainability, for these are not characteristics of the
physical realm. Instead, the physical realm is appreciated for the way it prepares the
inner essence, the ātman, for its eventual spiritual liberation. Crawford emphasises
that Hindu ethics are critical of medicine which makes ‘gods of the body, of health,
and of life’ for this is missing the goal of Hindu existence.47
One of the highest ideals in the Hindu religion is that of renunciation. The most
poignant model of renunciation is the example of the homeless ascetic (samnyāsin),
who leaves behind the comforts of the household and community to prepare for
spiritual liberation (moksa). This renunciation of family and community support is
viewed as a kind of death. Thus, as Crawford notes, the Hindu ethic behind life and
death is based on the understanding that ‘living is more than being alive’48 and so
medical efforts to preserve the bodily existence are always weighed against the
spiritual.
47
48
Crawford, Dilemmas of Life and Death, p. 123.
Ibid., p. 123.
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The Āyurveda is the first compilation of medical treatises that approach medicine as a
science, i.e. rationally and empirically, in contra-distinction to the early Vedic
approach of using spells and incantations to bring good fortune and ward off disease
and peril. However, the Āyurvedic approach did not scorn religion but viewed the
individual’s health issues holistically and sought proper knowledge along with proper
religious values and morality. Āyurveda literally means ‘the science of (living to a
ripe) age’49 and significantly is made up of the compound āyur (long life) and veda
(sacred text) so that it points to both medicinal and religious importance.
The Āyurvedic approach to medicine indicates that the physician should do all that is
within his/her realm of knowledge and power to return a person to full health.
However, there is a limit to the focus on longevity alone. For the Āyurveda also
contains a ‘do not resuscitate’ caveat for cases in which the physician admits that the
disease or condition of the patient is beyond all remedy. In this case, the physician
ceases all treatments and the patient is prepared for death.50
Against euthanasia
The following quotes (from ‘Euthanasia: The Swamis’ views,’ part 2, Hinduism
Today, August 1988, p. 5) speak out against all forms of euthanasia:
Swami Bhasyananda of the Vivekananda Vedānta Society: ‘Life has been
brought to the world by god, and this life should naturally go, but not by
artificial means. We should try to minimise the suffering. Apart from this,
nothing should be done. Life does not end at the body’s death. Just because a
law [to give lethal injection] is passed in the USA, that doesn’t make it right. A
Hindu doctor should not do it.’51
Swami Satchidananda of the Integral Yoga Institute: it is ‘not advisable for
anybody to request a lethal injection’ because ‘it is a form of suicide which will
affect their next life’. Terminating life short of that person destroying his/her
karma is a ‘missed opportunity’. ‘So then they have to continue to purge
somewhere, even in the next life, because karma has to be purged.’52
Sivaya Subramuniyaswami of Saiva Siddhanta: ‘… a lethal injection severs the
astral “silver cord” connecting the astral body to the physical. Those involved
then take on remaining karmas of the patient.’ Requesting a ‘mercy killing’ is a
‘sign of weakness’ and ought to be ‘ignored’. ‘Every soul must be encouraged to
49
Crawford, Hindu Bioethics for the Twenty-first Century, p. 34.
Crawford, Dilemmas of Life and Death: Hindu Ethics in a North American Context, p. 126.
51
Ibid., p. 109.
52
Ibid., p. 110.
50
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live in the physical body as long as it naturally lasts, so as to experience all
karmas, good, bad and mixed, so that these karmas will not be carried into the
next incarnation.’53
Swami Bhaskarananda of the Vedānta Society: ‘A person has to work out his or
her prarabdha karma [karma allotted for this lifetime]. If the life is suddenly cut
short, the after-effect is bad, as it is for a person committing suicide and
sometimes in accidental death. Our scriptures very clearly say that this must not
be done, because after death that person goes through a lot of suffering.’54
Rebuttal
In response to the above, Crawford criticises the association of karma with a fatalistic
attitude. A fatalistic reading of karma, according to Crawford, is one in which there is
no way to effect positive change. When viewed this way, one resigns oneself to an
unknown sentence of painful penance for past misdeeds. A proper view of karma is
one in which the individual assesses his/her situation in life, which may be based in
part on past or accumulated karma, but then hopefully and practically pursues the
Hindu path of spirituality and duties (dharma) in order to generate a positive
accumulation of actions. How one’s karma is balanced against one’s beneficial
actions/attitudes that burn off karma is complicated and impossible to measure. Much
of one’s activity rests on the faith that one’s current beneficial actions/attitudes are
sufficiently working in a positive direction.
Crawford gives the following arguments against a fatalistic reading of karma, which
could lead to a more favourable approach to euthanasia.
(1) A fatalistic reading of karma does not allow for human freedom of action which is
supported in proper reading of karma: selfish actions generate further karma to be
worked off, however, dispassionate and unselfishly motivated actions not only do not
generate further karma but actually help dissolve presently accumulated karma.55
(2) A fatalistic reading doesn’t allow for serviceable activities towards others:
Hinduism teaches that the Divine dwells in each human. Not rendering service to
another human is in fact failing to recognise that person’s divinity (i.e. ‘refusing to
serve God’). One might conceivably generate karma for oneself by failing to help
another in need.56
53
Ibid., p. 110
Ibid., p. 110.
55
Ibid., p. 110.
56
Ibid., p. 111.
54
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(3) The Āyurveda philosophy of Caraka argues that medicinal intervention of any kind
is doomed if karma is treated fatalistically. Medicine is an intervention and as such
must also be instrumental in changing/altering karma in this lifetime.57
(4) Although Gandhi is lauded for preaching the ethic of non-violence (ahimsā), he
also suggests that any ethic taken to an extreme can become immoral. The following
quote is taken from the weekly publication, Young India, 11 April 1926, p. 395:
I see that there is an instinctive horror of killing living beings under any
circumstances whatever. For instance, an alternative has been suggested in the
shape of confining even rabid dogs in a certain place and allowing them to die a
slow death. Now my idea of compassion makes this thing impossible for me. I
cannot for a moment bear to see a dog, or for that matter any other living being,
helplessly suffering the torture of a slow death. I do not kill a human being thus
circumstanced, because I have more hopeful remedies. I should kill a dog
similarly situated, because in its case I am without a remedy. Should my child
be attacked with rabies and there was no helpful remedy to relieve his agony, I
should consider it my duty to take his life. Fatalism has its limits. We leave
things to Fate after exhausting all remedies. One of the remedies and the final
one to relieve the agony of a tortured child is to take his life.58
This argument of compassion is one that resonates with Hindu ethics.
57
58
Crawford, Dilemmas of Life and Death, p. 111.
As quoted in Crawford, Dilemmas of Life and Death, p. 116.
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WAR AND PEACE
Section 5: War and peace
Responses to war: Is war ever morally justifiable?
The strong value of non-violence (ahimsā) in the Hindu tradition and ethical code
seems to suggest a strong argument against the violence of war and conflict. However,
as outlined in the Introduction, there are often moral dilemmas that can only be
addressed in individual situations. The understanding of a proper application of nonviolence is a good example of such a predicament.
Non-violence (ahimsā) and peace
The ethic of ahimsā has origins in the earliest Vedic literature as exemplified by this
verse from the Yajurveda:
May all beings look at me with a friendly eye, may I do likewise, and may we
all look on each other with the eyes of a friend.
Yajurveda 36.1859
The Hindu scriptures contain many references to the superiority of non-violence over
every other virtue. The Anuśāsana-Parva, one of the Dharmaśāstras, describes nonviolence (ahimsā) as ‘the highest religion’60 and continues by claiming that ahimsā is
the highest self-control, the highest gift, the highest penance. In the Śānti-Parva it is
claimed that not only is there no Dharma superior to ahimsā, but also that ahimsā
toward all living beings is considered superior to all other virtues.61 These praises
make clear that the ideal of non-violence towards others is of utmost significance in a
Hindu value system, and the accomplishment of upholding non-violence is
unparalleled.
The Bhagavadgītā 13.27 contains the phrase ‘he does not hurt the self by the self’,
which can be taken to mean that, because all beings contain a self (ātman) which is
united with Brahman, essentially all selves share a reality. In this understanding,
As quoted in Unto Tähtinen, Ahimsā: Non-Violence in Indian Tradition (Rider, London:
1976), p. 45.
60
Anuśāsana-Parva 116.38, as quoted in Tähtinen, Ahimsā, p. 89.
61
Ibid., p. 89.
59
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any action of violence against another would also entail an act of violence against
oneself.62
The just war
However, in the same scripture sources that praise non-violence, the Dharmaśāstras
and the Epic literature of the Mahābhārata, there are ample encouragements to fight
or wage war when it is demanded by one’s social duty (svadharma). For example, it
has clearly been a king’s duty in classical times to actively wage war if it is in the best
interest of his kingdom, because part of the king’s duty (svadharma) towards his
subjects is to increase the wealth and well-being of the kingdom.63 Bhagavadgītā verse
2.32 claims that a warrior (ksatriya) gains heaven should he die in a righteous war
(dharmya-samgrāma), and verse 2.53 contains Krishna’s injunction against Arjuna’s
desire to withdraw from the war, for to do so he would fail to uphold his duty
(svadharma) as a warrior, which would be a sin.64
Maintaining one’s duty according to one’s social position and life stage is what keeps
the universal order peaceful. Thus, the Brahmin and ascetic (sammyasin) are expected
to pursue a strict ethic of non-violence (ahimsā) while the warrior and king (ksatriya),
and others involved in upholding the state, are expected both to enforce laws with the
necessary and appropriate force (danda) and to wage war when they believe it prudent
and necessary. It is even said that a king who upholds his duty in an exemplary
manner has practiced ahimsā. The only way to understand this is to acknowledge that
the application of non-violence cannot be a singular and uniform ideal but one that is
understood in terms of the situation.
Modern armaments: Can the use of any types of modern armaments
be morally justified?
Weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear and biological
The Hindu writers of the Epic literature (for example the Ramayana and Mahābārata)
described the power of weapons of mass destruction that were Divine in nature and
thus beyond the normal scope of a human war. The powerful weapons are called
brahmastra and narayanastra and even sakti, the power of Divinity itself.
Furthermore, there is mention of the incredible power of spoken mantras (the sacred
syllables and phrases reserved for the priestly Brahmin caste). When Rama places the
See Michael von Brück’s ‘War and peace in Hinduism’, in Perry Schmidt-Leukel (ed.), War
and Peace in World Religions (SCM Press, London: 2004), pp. 16–17.
63
See Tähtinen, Ahimsā, p. 85 and von Brück, ‘War and peace in Hinduism’, p. 23.
64
As noted in Tähtinen, Ahimsā, p. 92.
62
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brahmastra in his bow the mountains tremble, the sky darkens, trees fall, comets singe
the sky, the earth cracks, lightening increases its intensity, tsunamis arise, and the
animals are terrified.65 That these references are found in the Epic literature does not
lessen the impact of the ethical and moral consequences of using such terrible
weapons discussed in this context and indicates that Hindu thinkers had at least
contemplated the possibility of grand-scale weapons that had the possibility for
terrorising not only an army properly prepared for battle, but all of creation as a sideeffect.
Arguments against using weapons of mass destruction or biological weapons
(1) Gratuitous killing. Many of the examples of the use of highly destructive
weapons in the Epic literature are either judged to be explicitly immoral, or there has
been intervention to stop the destruction. In the Mahābhārata, when Drona uses his
brahmastra in a rage, thinking his brother has been killed, three sages appear to bring
an end to the rampant destruction. He refuses to cooperate and is subsequently
rebuked for breaking the ‘rules of war’ including that of killing many for the sake of
one.66 In the Ramayana there is the episode in which Rama works to convince his
brother not to use a brahmastra against a demon foe. Part of the reasoning involves
again breaking ‘rules of war’, including the destruction of many for the sake of one, as
well as engaging a weaker enemy. Another ‘rule of war’ in the Hindu Dharmaśastras
is an injunction against killing women, children and others who are not soldiers and
involved in the battle at hand. It can be surmised from these examples that using
weapons of mass destruction that involve the gratuitous slaying of human life is
generally thought to be unethical or immoral.
(2) Lack of control. The use of weapons of mass destruction and biological warfare
eclipses the control of human will and therefore cannot be stopped or interrupted once
unleashed and this would break the ‘rule of war’ that once the enemy surrenders or is
soundly defeated the war must be stopped immediately.67
(3) Cruel, poisoned, or treacherous. The Hindu parameters of a just war exclude the
use of weapons which are ‘cruel, poisoned, or treacherous’.68 Clearly, weapons of
mass destruction, including nuclear and biological, violate all three of these
descriptions.
Katherine K. Young, ‘Hinduism and the ethics of weapons of mass destruction’, in Sohail
Hashmi and Steven P. Lee (eds), Ethics and Weapons of Mass Destruction (Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge: 2004), p. 291.
66
Ibid., p. 293.
67
Ibid., p. 293.
68
Ibid., p. 293.
65
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(4) Environmental concerns. The traditional Hindu stance of protecting and
nurturing nature and the environment are clear injunctions against unnecessarily
harming the environment because of a human disagreement. The use of any weapon
which harms the environment would be unethical from the standpoint of conservation.
Arguments for allowing the use of weapons of mass destruction69
(1) Situational provision. It can be argued that using any type of weapon in selfdefence is a justified position, even against the argument of non-violence (ahimsā), as
special situations call for special provisions. Furthermore, as indicated above, it can
always be argued that strict non-violence is reserved for special groups within society,
for example, the holyman or ascetic (sammyasin).
(2) Dharma for difficult times. One can argue that the concept apad-dharma, that is,
Dharma for difficult times and situations, may apply in relation to the use of
extremely destructive weapons. This argument has been used in cases where natural
disasters or political anarchy have rendered the situation unstable, and exceptions to
the normal ‘rules of war’ and conflict must be superseded in order to re-establish
stability. Once order is established, however, the weapons would cease to be ethically
sanctioned.
(3) Lesser of two evils. When confronting a particularly unethical enemy, an occasion
might arise in which unethical means to gaining victory must be employed, as this is
better than losing to such an enemy. Thus, the responsibility towards the communities
or society at large may merit or justify the use of the unethical means by which to
secure their safety. There is an example of this in the Mahābhārata when Krishna
advises Arjuna to ‘set aside his ethics’ and use whatever means necessary to conquer
Asvatthaman, who is poised to use his narayanastra (Divine weapon of mass
destruction) against Arjuna’s troops.
The following arguments are noted by Young, ‘Hinduism and the ethics of weapons of mass
destruction’, pp. 294–295.
69
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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