Basic Definitions
MotivationThe psychological process that arouses,
directs, and maintains behavior.
NeedA motivated state caused by physiological
deprivation (such as a lack of food, water, etc.)
DriveAn internal aroused condition that directs an
organism to satisfy some physiological need.
Types of motivation
Extrinsic motivationA type of motivation that
engages people in various activities for a particular
reward.
Intrinsic motivationA type of motivation that
engages people in various activities for no apparent
reward except the pleasure and satisfaction of the
activity itself.
Individualist-success motivationA type of
achievement motivation that affects one's attitudes
and actions directed towards the attainment of
personal goals.
Collectivist-success motivationA type of
achievement motivation that directs a person to
connect with others; the individual’s contribution is
seen as beneficial to the members of a particular
group or society in general.
Source: Shiraev E. and Levy, D. Cross-Cultural Psychology. (2007). Boston: Allyn and Bacon
Theories of Motivation.
Psychological
Main focus of the theories
approach
Drive theories
Pay attention to human needsmotivated
states caused by physiological or
psychological deprivation
Arousal theories Suggest that people seek to maintain
optimal levels of arousal by actively
changing their exposure to arousing stimuli
Emphasize the importance of unconscious
Psychoanalytic
processes in the individual’s thoughts and
theories
actions
Focus on human happiness, dignity,
Humanistic
individual choice, self-improvement, and
theories
the individual’s self-worth
Maintain that we are aware of our thought
Cognitive
patterns and therefore can control our
theories
motivation and overt behavior
Source: Shiraev E. and Levy, D. Cross-Cultural Psychology. (2007). Boston: Allyn and Bacon
Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Level 5: Self-Actualization

Level 4: Esteem Needs

Level 3: Belonging and Love Needs

Level 2: Safety Needs

Level 1: Physiological Needs
(Based on A. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 1970.)
Type of sex culture and general attitudes toward sex. Sex culture is a set of
requirement, beliefs, symbols, and norms regarding sexuality and its
expression.
Features
Traditional
Sex Culture
Expression of
sexuality
Premarital
sex
Extramarital
sex
Homosexuality
Chastity
Sex during late
adulthood
Non-Traditional
Sex Culture
Heavily regulated
Prohibited and
rejected
Prohibited and
rejected
Prohibited and
rejected
High value
?
Source: Shiraev E. and Levy, D. Cross-Cultural Psychology. (2007) Boston: Allyn and Bacon
Somewhat
regulated
Somewhat
tolerant
Somewhat
tolerant
Somewhat
tolerant
Low value
?
Cross-Cultural Psychology. Critical Thinking
Aggression and testosterone. A research study found that
men with testosterone levels in the top 10 percent were
more likely to belong to lower socioeconomic classes
(Dabbis & Morris, 1990). Does this mean that if a person has
a higher testosterone level, then this person is more likely to
become poor or remain poor? That is quite possible. Why? If
an individual is aggressive and violent, he or she will have
little chance to succeed in a society that requires
cooperation and demands compliance from its members.
However, the other explanation is plausible too. You could
suggest that unfavorable social conditions, abuse and
discrimination against a person may cause continuous
frustration and stress that is responsible for the release of
surplus amounts of testosterone in the body.
Source: Shiraev E. and Levy, D. Cross-Cultural Psychology. (2007). Boston: Allyn and Bacon
A case in point. Anorexia. Anorexia Nervosa is not a
“new” disorder and it does not only occur Western countries.
Although the term was introduced in 1874, several medical
sources reveal the presence of symptoms of anorexia in
people of the 18th century and much earlier. Using historical
documents, Bell (1985) described a so-called holy anorexia
involving food refusal accompanied by the person’s belief
that abstinence from food is connected to divine power.
While researchers found evidence that both anorexia and
bulimia have become more common during the 20th century,
the symptoms of anorexia have been observed in every nonWestern region of the world. With the exceptions of Japan
and Iran, prevalence estimates of bulimia in non-Western
nations were below the range reported for Western nations
and the attempts to find evidence of bulimia in earlier
historical periods were fruitless (Keel & Klump, 2003).
Source: Shiraev E. and Levy, D. (2007)
A case in point. Anorexia is not a “new” disorder and it
does not only occur Western countries. Although the
term was introduced in 1874, several medical sources
reveal the presence of symptoms of anorexia in people
of the 18th century and much earlier. Using historical
documents, Bell (1985) described a so-called holy
anorexia involving food refusal accompanied by the
person’s belief that abstinence from food is connected
to divine power. While researchers found evidence that
both anorexia and bulimia have become more common
during the 20th century, the symptoms of anorexia have
been observed in every non-Western region of the
world. With the exceptions of Japan and Iran,
prevalence estimates of bulimia in non-Western
nations were below the range reported for Western
nations and the attempts to find evidence of bulimia in
earlier historical periods were fruitless
Source: Keel & Klump (2003).