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CLE316: Egyptology Dissertation
Ascending to the Afterlife:
An analysis of the Middle Kingdom
‘Transformation’ Spells from Deir el-Bersheh
Student Number:
Word Count: 1106
Supervisor: Dr K. Szpakowska
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Contents
Introduction
What is a ‘transformation’ spell
The Importance of Provenance
The Significance of Deir el-Bersheh
Displaying the Data
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Chapter 1 – Ancient and Modern Evidence
Ancient Sources
Modern Sources
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Chapter 2 – Mortuary Literature
Spell 703 – ‘Spell for Becoming a Lotus-Tank Bird’
Spells 464 to 467 – The Field of Hetep
Spell 464 – ‘To Become Hetep, Lord of the Field of Offerings’
Spell 465 – ‘To Be Hetep’
Spell 466 - ‘To be Hetep, Lord of this Field’
Spell 467 – ‘Knowing the Towns in the Field of Hetep’
Concluding Remarks
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Chapter 3 – Mortuary Liturgy
Ritual Application – Helping the deceased ascend to the afterlife
Spell 312 – ‘Spell for Being Transformed into a Divine Falcon’
Spell 313 – ‘Being Transformed into a Falcon’
Spell 314 – ‘I am Osiris’
Concluding Remarks
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Conclusion
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Appendix 1 – Deir el-Bersheh Coffins
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Appendix 2 – Faulkner’s translation of spells – Mortuary Liturgy
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Appendix 3 – Faulkner’s translation of spells – Mortuary Literature
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Figures
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Bibliography
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INTRODUCTION
The ‘transformation’ spells come from a Middle Kingdom corpus of literature, the
Coffin Texts. While the Coffin Texts form the largest collection of religious texts in
Ancient Egyptian history, numbering 1185 spells, the ‘transformation’ spells from
Deir el-Bersheh amount to 105 spells, see appendix 11. It is the purpose of this study
to try and decipher the use of the el-Bersheh ‘transformation’ spells. Whether they
conform to the idea of use as mortuary literature or mortuary liturgy forming part of a
ritual drama conducted as part of the funerary and/or mortuary cult of the deceased.
By utilizing the already present scholarly research, combined with a personal analysis
of certain ‘transformation’ spells, it is the intention of this writer to attempt to address
these questions.
What is a ‘transformation’ spell?
It is necessary to make clear what constitutes a ‘transformation’ spell. It is first
important to stress that this study will not be including discussion on the hieroglyphic
translation of the texts, however where necessary the reader will be directed to the
appropriate works, to provide a further understanding of the scholarly debate on the
matter. A ‘transformation’ spell is a spell where the deceased or reader identifies
themselves as another deity or an aspect of a deity, these are identifiable in several
different ways. Firstly, they can have the rubric ‘being transformed into….2’ with the
animal or deity proceeding and secondly they can begin with ‘becoming….3’, again
with the animal or deity proceeding. Finally the deceased or reader may simply
identify themselves as the animal or deity, for example ‘I am Shu, son of Atum4’; in
this instance the spells are not preceded with a rubric.
The Importance of Provenance
As mentioned above not all the ‘transformation’ spells will be analysed, instead only
the ‘transformation’ spells from el-Bersheh shall be examined. This is being done for
one reason: it has been noted by J.K. Hoffmeier that there appears to be regionally
based theological and artistic differences in the coffin texts5. It would be inappropriate
to examine ‘transformation’ spells from across the whole of Egypt, when their
relationship cannot be examined thoroughly in such a short paper. Instead it would be
better to examine just el-Bersheh to identify the uses of those spells, in the hope that
others may adopt the same approach to other areas in Egypt. By employing this
methodology, it is hoped that a concise conclusion can be made concerning the use of
the el-Bersheh ‘transformation’ spells.
The Significance of Deir el-Bersheh
Located in the fifteenth nome of Upper Egypt, also known as the Hare nome was the
necropolis for the administrators of Hermopolis, who were buried in the rock cut
tombs located behind el-Bersheh, there is also a cemetery where commoners were
These ‘transformation’ spell are identified according to my classification of what constitutes a
‘transformation’ spell. This criterion is outlined in ‘What is a ‘Transformation’ spell?’
2
CT IV, 68 [312]
3
CTIV, 36 [286]
4
CTII, 44 [81]
5
Regionally theological differences are discussed in, Hoffmeier, 1996, 45-53 and regionally based
coffin art in Hoffmeier, 1991, 69-83
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believed to be buried6. Deir el-Bersheh is a good site from which to work on the uses
of the ‘transformation’ spells due to several reasons; firstly the site boasts the second
largest sources of coffin texts amounting to 33 coffins, see figure 17. Specifically
relating to the ‘transformation’ spells from el-Bersheh, 13 coffins have been identified
that contain ‘transformation’ spells, see appendix 1. Another important reason for
using el-Bersheh is due to a further set of spells from the Coffin Texts contemporary
to the ‘transformation’ spells, the ‘Book of Two Ways’. This group of spells will be
examined in more detail in the next chapter, suffice to say that I believe it to have
close links, both in content and structure to the ‘transformation’ spells from elBersheh. By examining the ‘Book of Two Ways’, it will be possible to form a clearer
conclusion to the uses of the ‘transformation’ spells8.
Displaying the Data
To further enhance the conclusion, the ‘transformation’ spells from el-Bersheh have
been separated into their respective coffins, see appendix 1; Assmann states that the
spells require examination in their respective groups, in order to properly understand
their meaning9. It would lead to wrong conclusions if one were to examine spells
believed to form part of a group, should they not appear on the same coffins. This
approach is also taken by Willems and will be examined in more detail below10.
The spells that will be subjected to a closer examination in this analysis have been
included so the reader can follow the analysis as it develops, see appendix 2 and 3.
The translation of the ‘transformation’ spells have been taken from R.O. Faulkner’s
translation of the Coffin Texts11. It is important to note that there is more than one
version of a spell depending on the coffin and the provenance; Faulkner uses the most
complete version of a spell and notes the variations. For this reason Faulkner’s notes
have also been included. With this in mind this analysis has focused on
‘transformation’ spells that either only appear in el-Bersheh or instances where
Faulkner uses the el-Bersheh spell for his translation.
Now the criteria of a ‘transformation’ spell and provenance have been established, it
is important to examine the key scholarly opinions that will be used in order to
interpret the uses of the ‘transformation’ spells, whether they formed part of the
mortuary literature or were more firmly associated to mortuary liturgy.
6
Kessler, 2001,177
When combined with Meir, Beni Hassan and Suit the area contains 103 sources of Coffin texts, see
Hoffmeier, 1996, 46-47
8
See Chapter 1 ‘Ancient and Modern Sources’ under the sub-heading ‘Ancient Sources’
9
Assmann, 2001, 257
10
Willems has suggested this in two of his articles, firstly in ‘the Shu spells in practise,’ these spells
deal with transformation into Shu CT 75-80, see Willems, 1996, 197-209. Secondly in ‘The Social and
Ritual Context of a Mortuary Liturgy,’ though these spells do not look specifically at ‘transformation’
spells Willems methodologies and ideas can be adopted by this study, see Willems, 2001, 253-372.
11
Faulkner, R.O. (2004) The Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts. Oxford: Oxbow Books
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Chapter 1
The Ancient and Modern Evidence
In the following chapters two possible uses of the ‘transformation’ spells will be
examined. In chapter two I shall see whether they were used as part of mortuary
literature or, in chapter three, as mortuary liturgies. While it is my intention to place
certain ‘transformation’ spells under a personal examination, it is also important to
examine and utilize the current scholarly debate on the issue. In-depth research has
revealed some very useful ideas already put forth by other scholars; these ideas will
be very valuable in determining the various uses for the ‘transformation’ spells.
Therefore it is the intention of this chapter to outline the main arguments that shall be
employed to decipher the uses for the el-Bershah ‘transformation’ spells. However
before these opinions are presented, it is important to make clear the ancient sources
that shall be used.
Ancient Sources
The most obvious ancient sources that shall be addressed are the Coffin Texts,
however I am only interested in the ‘transformation’ spells that come from elBershah. In order to find what ‘transformation’ spells feature on the el-Bershah
coffins I will consult the six volumes produced by Professor Adriaan de Buck,
published between 1936 and 1956; each volume containing spells of the coffin texts
and the various coffins they appear in. By cross referencing the ‘transformation’
spells from Faulkner’s translation with the corresponding spells from de Buck’s
volumes, it is possible to determine the spells provenance and whether they appear on
the inside or outside of the coffin, a point that will be explored in more detail below.
The ‘Book of Two Ways’ is also important when studying the ‘transformation’ spells.
The first point to note is that all twenty two versions of the ‘Book of Two Ways’
come from el-Bershah12. Leonard Lesko determined in 1969 that the book was
intended to be a ‘guide’ to the afterlife13. He identified three versions of the ‘Book of
Two Ways’, labelling them A, B and C14; from these Lesko identified several goals
for the deceased: ‘the fields of Hetep (offerings)’, the solar-bark, the mansion of
Osiris and the mansion of the moon15. The ‘Book of Two Ways’ obtained its name
due to a map which accompanied the spells showing two ‘zigzagged’ paths, this map
was drawn on the inside of the coffin so that the deceased could use it as he/she
progressed in afterlife.
With this in mind, it is imperative to see how the ‘Book of Two Ways’ may relate to
the ‘transformation’ spells. There are parallels in content, if one considers the goals of
the deceased in the ‘Book of Two Ways’ and then examines the ‘transformations’,
several patterns emerge. Firstly, ‘the fields of Hetep (offering)’ correspond to Coffin
Lesko, 1977, 3. The spells from the ‘Book of Two Ways’ were not exclusive to coffins and David
Silverman notes that the tomb of Nehri II contains spell 1029, 1071/1181 and 1073/1183, see
Silverman, 1992, 132
13
Wilhelm Bonacker first suggested this term in 1950 placing the ‘Book of Two Ways’ within a group
of “Guides to the Beyond” within this group he included the ‘Book of Gates’, Book of Habitations’ and
‘Book of Traversing Eternity’, see Bonacker, 1950, 6
14
Lesko, 1977, 4
15
Lesko, 1977, 6
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Texts spells 464-46716: another goal is mentioned in spells 312 and 313, where the
reader and/or deceased is transformed into a divine falcon, in both these instances the
reader of the spell aims to heal Osiris so he may be with him in his mansion. These
spells mirror the purpose of version C of the ‘Book of Two Ways’, in as much as the
reader is trying to vindicate and heal Osiris17; further to this, these spells (312 and
313) may well form a summarized or short ritual drama of version C 18. Parallels may
also be drawn between who may have used the ‘Book of Two Ways’, and the
‘transformation’ spells. Lesko mentions an idea by Grapow that the ‘Book of Two
Ways’ may well have been intended as a guide for the living as well as the
deceased19. This idea would support the opinion of Walter Ferden who said that “the
‘transformations’ were meant to be experienced primarily by the living”20; suggesting
that the ‘transformations’ were in fact ‘initiation’ texts experienced primarily by the
living with the dead in mind.
By examining the ancient sources, it has been shown that it is important not to look
simply at the ‘transformation’ spells from el-Bershah, but also the ‘Book of Two
Ways’. By briefly examining the texts, clear parallels can be seen both in content (the
relationship between the ‘transformations’ and the goals of the reader), and in context
(the relationship between who was meant to use the spells). With these points in mind
it is now important to examine the modern scholarly debate on the matter, to see
whether or not such methodology is appropriate for use with the ‘transformation’
spells from el-Bershah.
Modern Sources
There are three articles, by Jan Assmann, Walter Ferden and Harco Willems, that are
of great importance in attempting to understand the uses of the ‘transformation’ spells
from el-Bersheh. These articles help to provide the main line of discussion for the
study and the framework from which it shall be presented. While some do not
specifically relate to the ‘transformation’ spells they are still vital to the study.
In his book ‘Death and Salvation in Ancient Egypt’, Jan Assmann dedicates a chapter
to the understanding of mortuary liturgies and mortuary literature. It is from here that
the criteria shall be taken to determine what mortuary literature and liturgy is, and
whether the ‘transformation’ spells conform to that of mortuary literature, liturgies or
both.
CT V, 336 [464] ‘To become Hetep, Lord of the Field of Offerings’. CT V, 349 [465] ‘To be Hetep’.
CT V, 353 [466] ‘To be Hetep, Lord of this Field, with breath in his nose; he will never die’. CT V,
363 [467] ‘I live as Hetep’. Interestingly this spell contains several rubrics throughout stating, ‘being in
Hetep’ possible allusion to the deceased being in the field as well.
17
Lesko, 1977, 135
18
See Chapter 3 ‘Ritual Drama in Funerary Rites’.
19
Lesko, 1971, 32
20
Ferden is developing the ideas of Miss Thausing suffice to say that it is an idea he believes in, see
Ferden, 1960, 245
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Assmann states that mortuary literature is:
“…written codification of a store of knowledge that is placed in the tomb
along with the deceased for the purpose of equipping him for the afterlife…writing
serves as an artificial prosthesis of recollection that is to replace the recollection that
has disintegrated in death.”21
Therefore mortuary literature is something which is used personally by the deceased,
for his progression in the afterlife. The spells recorded on the coffins supplied the
deceased with vital magical knowledge which would help him in the afterlife.
Assmann’s classification also suggests that mortuary literature was placed in the tomb
not for recitation in cultic activity but instead as a store of thought; the mind of the
deceased is no longer present in the earthly realm and cannot use the mind he held in
life, the written spells replaced the disintegrated mind22. Spells that conform to this
classification of mortuary literature are present in the vast corpus of the Coffin Texts,
however the spells that are more firmly placed in this category are not
‘transformation’ spells, although some do come from el-Bersheh23. Having said this, it
does not mean that none of the ‘transformation’ spells from el-Bersheh conform to
Assmann’s classification of mortuary literature. Unlike the previously mentioned
spells, the rubrics of the ‘transformations’ almost always consist of the desired
transformation; therefore it is to the main body of the spells one has to look to
decipher whether it conforms to the composition of mortuary literature. This makes it
much harder to identify mortuary literature as it lacks textual coherence and a ritual
context, a point that is highlighted by Assmann24.
Therefore, using Assmann’s classification of mortuary literature it is possible to
identify several of the el-Bershah ‘transformation’ spells that I believe were intended
to be used by the deceased as mortuary literature25. These examples shall be examined
in more detail in the following chapter, it is sufficient to state that the study of
mortuary literature amongst the el-Bersheh ‘transformation’ spells is valid.
Turning to mortuary liturgies, Assmann also provides several ways in which to
classify and identify them, firstly he states:
“In the case of mortuary liturgies…recording cultic recitation whose salutary
effect is to surround the deceased permanently…It serves as a prosthesis of the voice,
specifically the voice of the priest, which it will cause to ring out forever in the depths
of the sarcophagus chamber.”26
21
Assmann, 2001, 249
Assmann, 2001, 249
23
These spells are clearly recognized by their rubrics and can not all be mentioned here, a small group
of spells provide a good example of mortuary literature, see CT II, 266 [154] ; CT II, 290 [155] ; CT II,
308 [156] CT II, 326 [157] these all feature on el-Bersheh coffins but are not ‘transformation’ spells.
24
Assmann, 2001, 252
25
Spells in light orange are spells that I believe belong within Chapter 2 and spells in light green are
spells I believe belong to chapter 3, due to restraints on space an analysis of these spells was not
possible, see appendix 1
26
Assmann, 2001, 249
22
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Unlike mortuary literature, liturgies were intended for recitation by the living, namely
the priest. Therefore perhaps it is more appropriate to describe mortuary liturgies as
an attempt by the living to provide further assistance to the progression of the
deceased in the afterlife. This interpretation will be explored in much more detail in
the appropriate chapter, suffice to say that this category is present in a much clearer
way in the ‘transformation’ spells than that of mortuary literature.
Further to these two categories Assmann states, specifically regarding mortuary
liturgies, that they need to be examined in their respective groups27. They were not
always recorded as individual spells, and in order to understand the context of the
liturgy, the spells must undergo examination individually and as part of their group.
This opinion, along with that of Willems, has provided a scholarly base from which to
analyse and present the findings of this study.
As just stated, Assmann stresses the importance of examining liturgies in their
respective spell groups; this is an idea adopted by Willems in his approach to
understanding Middle Kingdom mortuary liturgies28. In his article ‘The Shu Spells in
Practise’, Willems focuses on a group of spells that form part of the ‘transformation’
spell corpus that feature on some of the el-Bersheh coffins29. In his article Willems
challenges the earlier opinion of de Buck, who suggests that the titles of the Shuspells were a secondary accompaniment to that group of spells which originated in the
Old Kingdom and presented the religious dogma of Shu30. Willems disputes this by
analysing the spells to reveal the importance of the titles and how the group relates to
earthly ritual, and not just an understanding of the mythology of Shu. His analysis
leads to the conclusion that the Shu-spells were used as a dramatized ritual,
suggesting ‘the Shu-spells provide us with a mythologized social pattern’31. The
deceased is equated to Atum while the son is equated with Shu, an interesting point,
as the spells were therefore intended to transform the living son in order to help the
deceased father. It is the intention of this study to adapt Willems’ argument for use on
the ‘transformation’ spells, and see if they could have been used as mortuary liturgies
in el-Bersheh32.
The final scholarly opinion that bares influence on this study is that of Walter Ferden.
In his article ‘The “Transformations” of the Coffin Texts: A New Approach’, he
draws an interesting interpretation that the spells formed part of an ‘initiation’
experienced by the living; he goes on to suggest that they were primarily intended for
the living33. This is a bold statement to make and Ferden continues with:
27
Assmann, 2001, 252
Two of Willems’ works relate to my analysis and provide some of the main theme that will be
looked for when examining the el-Bersheh ‘transformation spells, Willems, 2001, 253- 372 and
Willems, 1992, 197-209
29
Coffin Text spells 75 to 81. Coffins B1P, B1C, B2P, B1L, B2L, B5C, B7C, B1Bo, B2Bo
30
Willems, 1996, 197
31
Willems, 1996, 209
32
The “Shu-spells” will not undergo further examination in this analysis as I believe Willems’
interpretations to agree with my own. In order to broaden an understanding of the ‘transformations’ in
el-Bersheh I will be looking at spells that have not undergone such extensive research. For this article
,see Willems, 1996, 197 - 203
33
Ferden, 1960, 245-246
28
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“As a matter of personal opinion, not susceptible of proof, I would like to
suggest that the same was true of the entire group of “(trans)formation” spells in the
in CT.34”
Here Ferden has presented an opinion that will either be supported or disproved by
this analysis35.
An examination of the current scholarly research has greatly helped in the formation
of this study, and hopefully it is this debate that will be developed by this analysis. To
summarise, Assmann has provided a description of what constitutes as mortuary
literature and liturgy; it is this criteria that shall be used to categorize the various elBersheh ‘transformation’ spells. Within these categories an analysis similar to that of
Willems shall be adapted to use with the el-Bersheh ‘transformation’ spells. Further to
this, my analysis will serve to accompany Willems’ article ‘The Shu-spells in
Practise’. Finally, Ferden presents an opinion similar to that of Willems’, however
places a much stronger emphasis on the purposes of the ‘transformation’ spells as
‘initiation’ of the living. By examining the el-Bersheh spells, it will be seen whether
the analysis supports this opinion or if this is an opinion that is far too drastic to adapt
to the corpus of the ‘transformation’ spells from el-Bersheh.
34
Ferden, 1960, 246
This opinion has already come under sizable opposition by both Hornung and Morenz, their opinions
amongst others are discussed by Edward F. Wente in ‘Mysticism in Pharaonic Egypt’ , Wente also
offers develops the argument of Ferden to use on New Kingdom mortuary literature/ liturgy that may
have had their origins in the Middle Kingdom and offers a linguistic analysis of texts, see Wente, 1982,
161 - 179
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CHAPTER 2
MORTUARY LITERATURE36
As stated by Assmann, mortuary literature was a store of knowledge that the deceased
required in order to become equipped and progress in the afterlife, a written recording
of what was held in the mind during life. With this in mind, it is now important to
examine the ‘transformation’ spells from el-Bersheh to see if any conform to this use.
Spell 703 – Spell for becoming a Lotus Tank Bird
This spell only features on el-Bersheh coffin B2L and contains two rubrics, the first
being ‘Spell for becoming a Lotus-Tank Bird’, and the second being ‘Becoming a
Lotus Tank Bird in the realm of the dead, so that a man may be equipped with his
spirits’. This spell, although short, represents a journey in which the deceased’s goal
is to equip himself with the spirits he requires; by splitting this spell into three parts
this idea will become clearer.
Part One (Lines 1-5) – Entering into the divine realm
In order to ascend to the sky the deceased needed a vessel, this is the primary purpose
of the transformation. Upon assuming the shape of a bird the deceased could then
proceed upon his journey to the divine realm. In what followed the deceased collected
food offerings for Re as he cannot arrive in the divine realm with nothing to offer 37.
Upon presenting these offerings to Re he was then allowed to enter into the divine
realm, it is at this point the transformation takes a new form, suggesting that the bird
was just a medium to move from the corpse on earth to the divine realm.
Part 2 (Lines 6-8) – Association with the Ogdoad Hermopolis
Once in the divine realm the deceased states, “I am one who is transformed into the
spirits who have gone to their doubles.” This statement suggests that the deceased
announced his rebirth by placing himself amongst the Ogdoad of Hermopolis38; the
four couples were Nun and Naunet, Heh and Hauhet, Kek and Kauket and Amun and
Amaunet, see appendix 2. By the deceased consuming the spirits, a strange situation is
presented as Atum supposedly created these pairs he did not consume them. This
problem may be solved by the idea that the deceased could not imitate the spirits, this
would not equip the deceased with their power. However if the deceased were to
consume the spirits, then their power would be within him equipping him with their
power. At the completion of this section the deceased has achieved his primary goal;
being equipped with his spirits.
Part 3 (Lines 9-12) – Stating the achievement
Upon equipping himself the with the required spirits, the deceased then rejoiced at his
achievement, he was then free to move wherever he pleased. The spell is then
concluded with a final announcing of the deceased’s achievement “Becoming a
Lotus-Tank Bird in the realm of the dead, so that a man may be equipped with his
For Faulkner’s translation of these spells, see appendix 2
The fish and ‘pure things’ mentioned by the deceased may have been items that formed part of the
food offerings to the deceased from the living. CT V, 335a [703]
38
We may expect this as el-Bersheh is situated in the Hare Nome, Hermopolis was believed to be
where the sun god came into being on the ‘Island of Flames’ , see Hart, 2005, 133
36
37
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spirits.” This closing rubric further suggests that the initial transformation was not the
goal of the spell but a ‘means to an end’ enabling the deceased to equip himself.
The Significance of Spell 703
The goal of the deceased places this spell firmly in the category of mortuary literature,
the spell would have equipped the deceased with the attributes necessary to progress
in the afterlife. Further to this, it can be seen that the ‘transformation’ was not the
primary goal, but a vessel with which to achieve his primary goal.
Spells 464-467 – The Fields of Hetep
This group of spells holds a position of great importance in understanding the uses of
the transformation spells and their existence as mortuary literature; they feature on
coffins B1Bo, B1L, B3L, B1C, B5C, B6C, B9C and B2P39. Unlike spell 703, which
stood alone, it is important to analyse the Hetep spells together, in order to fully
understand them. Lesko states that the ‘Fields of Hetep/Offerings’ was one of the
goals for the deceased in the afterlife, this idea comes from analysing spell 1164,
although it must be stressed that this spell is not a transformation spell40. Spell 1164 is
mentioned as it clearly links ‘The Book of Two Ways’ to the transformation spells
from el-Bersheh; in what follows I shall explore this idea in more depth41.
Spell 464 – ‘To Become Hetep, Lord of the Field of Offerings’42
If one is to associate these spells with spell 1164 in the ‘Book of Two Ways’, and
suggest that the deceased aimed on residing in the ‘Field of Hetep/Offering’, then it is
essential to look for evidence that may indicate a relationship between spell 1164 and
the ‘Field of Hetep’ spells. The opening part of this spell places the deceased within a
mythic context and seems to discuss the birth of Horus and the struggle of Isis.
Interestingly, Faulkner questions the rendering of the fifth line in which the text reads,
“He has taken away Him who is in my womb,” Faulkner suggests that Isis is the
speaker43. While this is an understandable conclusion it may also attest to the fertile
nature of the field, ergo the womb, therefore suggesting that Horus was removed from
the field. Later in the spell the birth of Horus is again referenced when the deceased
claims to protect Isis from anyone who may do her harm44. It is in the last part of the
spell that the deceased states his actions in the field45, proclaims his knowledge and
announces his glorification46.
By bringing together the points just mentioned it is possible to conclude that there is a
relationship between spell 464 and spell 1164. Should the deceased wish to live in the
fields and see Osiris, presumably he would need to appease Osiris. The deceased
achieves this by protecting and guiding the Ennead47. Further to this he protects the
39
In coffin B2P only spell 466 is recorded, the other spells in the sequence are missing.
For Lesko’s interpretation, see Lesko, 1977, 55-56. For Faulkner’s translation, see CT VII, 506d
[1164]
41
I am aware of Lesko’s article regarding the ‘Field of Hetep’ spells, however it was unavailable to
myself at the time of this analysis and has therefore been omitted, see Lesko, L.H. (1954) “The Fields
of Hetep in the Egyptian Coffin Texts,” in JARCE 9
42
CT V, 336a [464]
43
Faulkner, 2004, 91 n.7
44
CT V, 341d [464]
45
CT V, 344e [464]
46
CT V, 348b [464]
47
CT V, 340b [464]
40
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wife of Osiris, an important act to state should the deceased wish to reside in the
afterlife with him. Finally if the deceased wishes to fulfil the criteria set by spell 1164,
he requires a plot of land in the ‘Field of Hetep’, this is the purpose of the second half
of the spell. Here the deceased states that he maintains his plot in the field
proclaiming both his magic and power.
Therefore what we are presented with here is an introduction and a justification as to
the reason for the deceased in the ‘Field of Hetep’; the first step in this sequence of
spells. This can be represented as:
Spell 464 – Step 1
Arrival of the deceased in the ‘Field of Hetep’ as Hetep – Justification of
his presence and role as a protector of the Ennead
Spell 465 – “To Be Hetep”48
This spell presents a strange situation in which the deceased appears to associate
himself with Horus. Interestingly it is Horus who is equipped with life and magic, not
Hetep. It seems most appropriate to analyse this spell in terms of present and future;
Horus being the present and Hetep being the future. When one looks at the actions of
Horus it can be seen that he was not confined to the ‘Field of Offerings’ and moved
about freely49. Further to this his actions are described in the present, “he does
everything… there is no shouting… there is nothing evil”. This is contrasted by Hetep
(the deceased’s) actions where, “he will do everything… there will be no
shouting…there will be no evil.” This suggests something that could happen in the
future, should Hetep rest in Ķnķnt then he will be like Horus, ultimately long of life
and equipped.
Spell 465 therefore reads like an instruction to the deceased that would help him
become equipped in the ‘Fields of Hetep’. The sequence now reads:
Step 1 – Spell 464
Arrival of the deceased in the ‘Field of Hetep’ as Hetep – Justification of his presence
and role as a protector of the Ennead
Step 2 – Spell 465
The deceased (as Hetep) is instructed as to how to become equipped in the ‘Field of
Hetep, where to go and the things to do. Though he lacks a map to locate Ķnķnt
Spell 466 – ‘To be Hetep, Lord of this Field’
Spell 466 provides another vital piece required in order to become equipped and
reside in the ‘Field of Hetep’. Though it is recorded in word by Faulkner, these words
relate to a drawn map found on the surface of the coffins, see figures 2-750. It may be
appropriate to categorize spell 466 as a ‘map’ rather than spell; however it is viewed it
certainly provides a store of knowledge for the deceased and would certainly serve in
his progression in the afterlife. It is also important to note the similarities between this
‘map’ and the map in the ‘Book of Two Ways’. The presence of both Spell 466 and
48
CT V, 348c [465]
CT V, 349b [465]
50
The map survives on B1C, B5C, B9C, B1L, B3L and B2P. Faulkner’s Roman numeral relate to the
position of the script on the coffin, see CT V, 351a [466] and de Buck, 1959, 359-362
49
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the map of the ‘Book of Two Ways’ on the same coffins, certainly supports the ideas
of Kees and Lesko that the field was of great importance to the el-Bersheh deceased
in the afterlife51. Further to this Lesko suggests that this spell formed the beginning of
this series of spells, however this analysis so far places it at this part of the sequence;
although its presence at the beginning of the sequences would not alter its meaning52.
Now the deceased had a map to follow in order to achieve what was laid out in spell
465. The sequence now reads:
Step 1 – Spell 464
Arrival of the deceased in the ‘Field of Hetep’ as Hetep – Justification of his presence
and role as a protector of the Ennead
Step 2 – Spell 465
The deceased (as Hetep) is instructed as to how to become equipped in the ‘Field of
Hetep, where to go and the things to do. Though he lacks a map to locate Ķnķnt
Step 3 – Spell 466
The deceased now has a map containing the names and locations of the towns and
spirits in the ‘Field of Hetep’
Spell 467 – Knowing the Towns in the Fields of Hetep
This spell shows further progression by the deceased in the ‘Fields of Hetep’, if one
looks upon spell 465 as something that could be obtained in the future, then spell 467
represents what happened in the contemporary ‘now’.
Announcement of Knowledge and his Equipped State
At the beginning of the spell the deceased makes reference to all he knows, it is in this
section that one acquires further evidence to support the idea that this is mortuary
literature. The deceased states, “I recall to myself that which I have been forgetful,”
suggesting that this, along with the previous spells, have acted as a store of knowledge
for the deceased, a store that he had called upon to regain his memory53.
The Rubrics within the spell
It is clear when reading the spell that the rubrics relate to the map of spell 466, and it
is within these sections that one can learn the functions of the towns in the ‘Field of
Hetep’ and their importance to the deceased. The ‘Lady of the Two Lands’ appears to
be the one whom equips the deceased with magic, so he can recall what he knew in
life54. It appears more and more as the spell progresses that it relates to spell 466 and
this is easily explained by using B9C as an example, see figure 155. In the first half of
the spell the deceased has moved from town to town, equipping himself with the
magic and provisions he required in order to sail the boat depicted on coffin B9C56.
While Lesko suggests that ‘The Fields of Hetep’ was one of the goals, Kees places rather more
emphasis on it being ‘the’ goal, this idea came under scrutiny from other scholars. While we cannot be
certain that it was ‘the’ goal Kees suggest, the necessity for it to have its own map certainly places an
emphasis on its importance, see Lesko, 1971, 31
52
Lesko, 2002, 144
53
CT V, 364a [467]
54
CT V, 368d [467]
55
Though I use B9C for an example the same methodology can be adapted to be used with the other
coffins containing spell 466, however it should be noted the B2P only contains spell 466 and omits
467.
56
The section I am referring to ends at ‘O Provisions Town’, see CT V 373a [467]
51
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Once aboard the boat the deceased announced his self-completion in ‘Union Town’ in
the central register of B9C. Upon leaving this town and appeasing the ‘Mighty Lady’
by announcing his generosity, the deceased became free to traverse across the
waterway of Hetep, this appeared to be the final destination of the deceased. What is
of most significance regarding this spell is the rubric at the end, undoubtedly this
states the objective of this group of spells. It is important to note the similarity
between this rubric and spell 1164, both offering the notion that the goal of the
deceased is to reside in the ‘Field of Offerings/Hetep’ for his entire time in the
afterlife.
It is important to briefly mention spell 468 because, although it is not a
‘transformation’, it is necessary to briefly discuss its bearing on the significance of the
purpose of the ‘transformation’ spells; however a complete analysis is not possible in
such a short space. The most important thing to note from this spell is that the
deceased no longer identifies himself as Hetep but now acts beside Hetep57.
With the end of Spell 468 one is presented with a complete sequence of events that
reads as follows:
Step 1 – Spell 464
Arrival of the deceased in the ‘Field of Hetep’ as Hetep – Justification of his presence
and role as a protector of the Ennead
Step 2 – Spell 465
The deceased (as Hetep) is instructed as to how to become equipped in the ‘Field of
Hetep, where to go and the things to do, though he lacks a map to locate the towns
and spirits.
Step 3 – Spell 466
The deceased now has a map containing the names and locations of the towns and
spirits in the ‘Field of Hetep’
Step 4 – Spell 467
Using the map the deceased completes the criteria set in spell 465 while also
maintaining his plot in the field
Step 5 – Spell 468
The deceased no longer wishes to ‘become’ Hetep and now lives in the field alongside
Hetep. He glorifies the actions he took in the previous spell that caused him to
become and equipped spirit.
Concluding Remarks
What has been made abundantly clear from looking at these spells, is that they need to
be analysed in a group to maximise their understanding. By examining the spells in a
group it can be seen that they seem to progress from 464 through to 468. The
deceased begins by justifying his presence in the field with his protective actions
towards Isis and Horus, following this he concludes what he does in the field. Upon
justifying his presence in the field the deceased then progresses to spell 465 where he
discovers how to equip himself, by traversing the waters and visiting the towns like
Horus. By reaching spell 466 the deceased then knew what to do to equip himself and
acquired a map that he could follow. Upon visiting the towns in the ‘Field of Hetep’
57
CT V, 381k [468]
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the deceased manages to regain the knowledge he lost in death and equips himself
with the magic he requires in order to remain in the ‘Field of Offerings’. As a final
remark it can clearly be seen that there is a relationship between one of the goals of
the deceased in the ‘Book of Two Ways’ and the purpose of the ‘transformation’
spells.
What has been shown in both the single spell 703 and the group of spells 464 to 468 is
that the ‘transformations’ provided a ‘means to an end’ and were not the final
objective of the deceased. In both instances the transformation had enabled the
deceased to temporarily enter the divine realm, giving them enough time to equip
themselves with the knowledge and magic that would have enabled them survive
outside their desired transformation, and as a transfigured spirit in the divine realm.
What has been made clear from this chapter is that the ‘transformation’ spells do
conform to Assmann’s classification of mortuary literature, their recording on the
coffin served as a prosthesis of the disintegrated mind of the deceased.
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CHAPTER 3
MORTUARY LITURGY58
Now this analysis will turn to an examination of the el-Bersheh ‘transformation’
spells as mortuary liturgy. In this category it was the ritual recitation of the spells that
benefited the deceased and was recited either on a daily basis, on set festivals or as a
continuation of the funerary rituals59.
Van Gennep’s theory of rites de passage is most apt to describe the stages the
deceased underwent in his journey from life to death. As his theory generally relates
to many cultures it is only the liminal (rites during the transitional phase) and
postliminal (ceremonies of incorporation into the new world) that concern Ancient
Egyptian mortuary practise60. Specifically concerning Egypt, these were stages where
the living, through ritual liturgy, aided in the deceased’s transition from this world to
the next. In many instances the liturgies followed a dramatized ritual that was deeply
immersed in mythic language, thus the reader is presented with a series of ‘players’ or
‘actors’ that take part in the recitation of the spells61.
The reason for the use of myth in mortuary liturgies is aptly explained by Tobin when
he states:
“A myth is a spoken word, statement, or narrative that is used, frequently
within a cultic setting, to articulate realities that cannot be defined in a totally
rational manner.”62
Thus Tobin suggests that myth supplied the medium from which the afterlife could be
explained. In effect belief in the afterlife, whatever culture, lessens our fear of death
as ‘the end’ of both our physical and mental state. The physical body is inanimate
after death and so it is impossible to attempt to explain a continuation of life
rationally. This has lead to much scholarly debate and conflict when interpreting the
spells for their use and meaning. It is important here to reiterate the word ‘interpret’, it
is impossible to answer these questions, instead one must use what is available to
provide the most convincing argument. With this in mind it is important to utilize the
scholarly debate on the issues about to be addressed, however it is important to
challenge an opinion if necessary and not simply accept it.
Ritual Application - Helping the Deceased Ascend to the Afterlife
Davis offers more evidence to support the idea that myth supplied a background for
an explanation of the afterlife, and the role of the living regarding the deceased’s
ascension into it63. Davis uses two categories to classify the role played by the
For Faulkner’s translation of these spells, see appendix 3
Roth, 2002, 147
60
Parker Pearson, 1999, 22
61
I highlight these words as I cannot discuss in depth the debate regarding the presence of ‘drama’ in
Egyptian religion in such a short paper. These terms are used to signify that recitation is taking place
for the deceased by a speaker or speakers and for the most part this is done in a deeply mythological
tone. For a discussion on the debate of ‘drama’ in Egyptian religion see, 0’Rourke, 2002, 112-115
62
Tobin, 2000, 464
63
Though Davis concentrates on the Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts I believe that his conclusions can be
applied to the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts and thus the ‘Transformation’ spells.
58
59
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mortuary cult: ritual transmission and ritual identification64. Regarding transmission
Davis states:
“The life-essence is transmitted by a force outside itself. The process was a
“ritual” one…happenings described in the text were believed to occur by virtue of
their inclusion. What was written or recited through sympathetic magic became
real.”65
From what will be analysed one can see that this is represented by the journey
undertaken by the deceased in the spell, its recitation in ritual caused the transmission
from this life to the afterlife. Davis’ second category identification ties in with my
understanding of ‘transformation’ in the Coffin Text and so is very important in trying
to understand the uses of the ‘transformations’. Here Davis suggests that the King
used the guise and attributes of divinities and animals in order to ascend to the sky66.
Once again this suggests that the ‘transformations’ were used to supply the deceased
with a vessel for transport and was not the primary objective of the deceased. One is
therefore presented with a scholarly opinion that agrees with the one of this writer and
has evidence in both the ‘transformations’ of the Coffin Texts and the ascension of the
King in the Pyramid Texts67.
Spell 312 – ‘Spell for Being Transformed into a Divine Falcon’
This spell appears on coffins B4C, B6C, B2Bo and B6Bo and the characters
concerned are Osiris, Horus and an image of Horus. Interestingly this spell appears as
an extra note to an article by Willems, in which he looks at the social and ritual
context of mortuary liturgy68. Therefore using Willems’ study, a foundation has been
laid from which this examination shall build upon.
In what is presented, the spell concerns Osiris who asks Horus to come to him in the
afterlife69. After interference by some unspecified gods Horus turns down Osiris and
instead sends an image of himself70. The image of Horus then proceeds through the
underworld, upon reaching a gate keeper the image uses knowledge (given to him by
Horus), to proceed71. Once past the gate keeper the image praises both Horus and
Osiris while announcing his acceptance into the netherworld72.
If one is to accept the hypothesis by Willems, then the characters are defined as such:
64
Davis, 1977, 166
Davis, 1977, 167. Also see Ritner, 2002, 209 regarding magic in the afterlife.
66
Davis, 1977, 167
67
Many of the transformation spells are defined with the help of rubrics. The Pyramid texts do not
contain rubrics and therefore it is not as easy to identify them as ‘transformation’ spells. Although there
are clear parallels between the ascension of the King in the Old Kingdom and the vessels of the
deceased in the Middle Kingdom.
68
Willems primary study concerns spells 30-37 of the Coffin Texts, these are not transformation spells
and cannot de discussed here, suffice to say that he suggests that spell 312 follows the same social
pattern to the spells in his study. He concludes that the spell involved both father and son and notes that
it served to progress both parties. For a complete understanding of Willems’ study, see Willems, 2001,
253-372. For his interpretation of spell 312, see Willems, 2001, 370-372
69
CT IV, 68a [312]
70
CT IV, 73g [312]
71
CT IV, 78a [312]
72
CT IV, 85a [312]
65
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Horus= Living son Image of Horus (deceased father) Osiris73
Thus one is presented with a new form of spell that has altered what has been learned
to this point regarding the uses of the ‘transformation’ spells. By removing the mythic
guise of the liturgy, it can be seen that the spell concerns a situation in which the
living son is requested by Osiris, not the deceased. While this may initially seem
strange, it may be explained as such; the failure of the son to come to Osiris presents a
mythic purpose for the deceased to act upon, thus legitimizing the living sons role as
‘head of household’ and justifying his position in the afterlife74. Upon completion of
his task the image of Horus became sufficiently equipped and worthy of a place with
Osiris75. Assmann places further emphasis on the son’s role as he suggests that, “his
(deceased’s) person is restored through his integration into the social constellation of
the divine realm.” The actions of the son maintaining the social connectivity though
vindicating the deceased fathers name and reputation in the realm of the living76. This
presents a two-fold purpose to this spell; the living son has aided his father’s
progression in the afterlife, while at the same time he legitimizes his position as ‘head
of household’. Likewise his father has been able to vindicate Osiris and reside with
him in the afterlife through the help of his living son.
In what has just been analysed, parallels can be drawn between spell 312 and the spell
703 of the previous chapter. In spell 703 the deceased required a vessel to ascend to
the sky and equip himself, in spell 312 the same situation is presented with some
changes. Instead the living son requires a vessel to enter the afterlife, namely his
father77.
The necessity for the ‘transformation’ is confirmed by the gatekeeper when he states:
“Indeed, you are equipped with the form of Horus, but you do not possess the
Wig-cover. Do you speak on the confines of the sky?” 78
Hence the ‘transformation’ again has served as a vessel for the deceased, but this time
it has also served a purpose for the living son. This argument certainly questions the
interpretations of Ferden, although not entirely disproving him. While it certainly
disproves his idea that:
“The headings i.e. the directions of use for the texts, must also – and it stands
to reason, primarily been designed for the living.”79
73
Willems, 2001, 371
An initial examination of this spell led me to suggest that the ‘image of Horus’ or Horus was played
by a priest. However after reading Olson it seem that the living son and head priest in the private cult
can be equated, sometime a priest was employed to stand in for the eldest son by still acted as if it was
him, see Olson, 2002, 39
75
This part is by the images self praise of his journey to Osiris, proclaiming his magic and knowledge,
see CT IV 85a [312]
76
Assmann, 2001, 66
77
Willems, 2001, 371
78
CT IV, 77f [312] The gatekeeper suggesting that the knowledge is required as well as the image.
79
Ferden, 1960, 246
74
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Evidently with spell 312 the title sought to transform the deceased father. However it
does agree with a suggestion that he makes earlier in his article in which he states:
“It is self-evident that any text recorded on a coffin was meant to serve the
deceased in his death. However, I find it extremely implausible that the Egyptians
would have entrusted their well-being in the hereafter to magic spells without testing
them in life first”80
Spell 312 shows this, for the living to vindicate Osiris he would need the
‘transformation’ of his father to work. If the results of the ritual were satisfactory then
the living son would be happy to use this spell on his own coffin.
Spells 313 and 314
This analysis is now presented with a pair of spells that appear to follow on from the
previous spell (312), however it appears on a single coffin which does not contain
spell 312, coffin B5C, see appendix 1. It is hoped that an analysis of these
‘transformations’ will offer a conclusion as to why this might be.
Spell 313 - “Being Transformed into a Falcon”
In spell 313 Osiris asks for Horus to come to him and as Horus cannot oblige Osiris
Thoth is sent instead; however this is done at the request of Atum, not Horus81. After
accepting what Atum asked of him, Thoth regales a long speech of how he vindicates
Osiris. Within his speech it appears that he is first coming to Osiris to bring him
vindication82, and concludes his speech having given him vindication83. This suggests
that it is not a stagnant place in time but a progression of events. Proceeding this
Horus then requests that Thoth do for him what Thoth did for Osiris84; the spell then
concludes with a short speech by Osiris85.
A brief examination of the spell itself has shown it to be very similar to that to spell
312, however there are some significant differences. Firstly the characters involved
are slightly different, having said this they can be equated to each other in the
following manner:
Spell 312
Spell 313
Equated to
Osiris
Osiris
Characters
Horus
Gods
Image of Horus
Horus
Atum
Thoth
Living Son
Deceased Father
It is extremely plausible to suggest that spell 313 offers a regional variant to spell 312,
as can be seen by the locations that contain the spells, see appendix 186. The regional
deities took precedence over the general ‘gods’ and ‘image of Horus’ in spell 312.
While this presents no problem between Atum and the ‘gods’ it does when examining
80
Ferden, 1960, 245
CT IV, 88h [313]
82
CT IV, 88q [313]
83
CT IV, 90n [313]
84
CT IV, 91c [313]
85
CT IV, 93p [313]
86
Spell 313 is only present in el-Bersheh unlike spell 312 that features on some Thebes and Dendera
coffins.
81
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Thoth. If one is to accept the classification of characters presented by the above table,
then one would expect the ‘transformation’ to happen to the deceased father (Thoth),
however this is not the case. While the actions of Thoth in spell 313 paralleled that of
the ‘Image of Horus’ in spell 312, it is Horus of 313 that announces his form as a
falcon87. Therefore this spell presents an unusual situation, the purpose of the spell
appears to run parallel to that of spell 31288. However the ‘transformation’ only
severed the living son by further associating him with Horus, linking himself with the
deity in a much more divine way89. Should the ‘transformation’ have served the
deceased then one may expect the rubric to read ‘Transformation into an
Ibis/Swallow/Thoth’, this certainly would not have been revolutionary as the elBersheh coffins do contain several examples, see appendix 190.
It is possible to conclude that while ‘transformation’ spell 313 appears to serve the
same purpose for the living and deceased as spell 312, the use of the ‘transformation’
had altered. Therefore this would agree with Ferden that the ‘transformation’,
although obviously intended to aid the deceased was primarily for the living91.
Spell 314 – “I am Osiris”
Like spell 313, spell 314 is represented only on B5C and therefore Faulkner’s
translation corresponds exactly. Faulkner notes the complicated context of this spell,
the deceased throughout appears to identify himself with several deities, see appendix
292. Although it certainly appears confusing when read, I believe spell 314 can be
better understood when one links it to the previous spell 313.
At the beginning the deceased identifies himself with Osiris, however in 94q he states
that he is Thoth. In what follows there appears to be clear parallels to spell 313, as the
events Thoth describes as having done in spell 314 were the things the deceased (as
Thoth), was doing in spell 313. Faulkner then suggests that it is the deceased whom
asks Thoth for vindication over his foes, “May I be triumphant over my foes – so you
shall say to Thoth”93. It is a better idea to suggest that this actually was an address to
the living son from the deceased, regarding what the son should do. In spell 313 the
living son (as Horus) states:
“O Thoth, you shall do for me what you did for Osiris, so that I may be
triumphant and that you may fell my foes.”94
In the final sentence of spell 314 one is again presented with an event paralleled in
spell 313. Here Osiris states that he shall be loved and vindicated to the mansion of
Osiris as the heritage of the land had been confirmed to his son 95. Again this relates to
87
CT IV, 91q [313]
The deceased acts on behalf of the son to legitimize the son’s position within that household, while at
the same time allowing the deceased to reside alongside Osiris in the afterlife.
89
CT IV, 93b [313]
90
Coffins B1Bo, B2L, B1Y, B2Be and B1C all contain ‘transformations’ into an animal associated to
Thoth.
91
Ferden, 1960, 245
92
Spell 314, n.1
93
CT IV, 94r [314]
94
CT IV, 91c [313]
95
CT IV, 96h [314]
88
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spell 313 as there Horus states, “I have become the ruler of the Two Banks, I have
inherited the thrones of Horus”96.
The research of Willems may also shed light on the uses of this ‘transformation’ spell,
in his article on spell 312 he presents the following hypothesis:
I
Horus (Living son) Osiris (deceased father)
Horus (revived father) Osiris (dead father god)97
II
In this, Willems states the horizontal line represents the ritual action and the vertical
line represents the transfiguration undergone as a result of the ritual action. After an
examination of spell 314, it seems possible to adapt the same principal to spells 313
and 314; presenting this scheme:
Spell 313
Horus (living son) Thoth (deceased father) Osiris
Spell 314
Horus (son now legitimized heir)
Osiris (revived father)
This scheme can be explained as such; the ritual action by the son enabled the father
to play a ritual role as Thoth vindicating Osiris. The recitation of spell 313 enabled the
progression to spell 314, where the son is announced as the deceased father’s
legitimate heir, thus making the father Osiris in the afterlife.
This fresh analysis of spells 313 and 314 combined with the scholarly research, has
enabled a clearer understanding of the uses of these particular ‘transformations’.
Further to this, it reiterates the point made by Assmann that liturgies require
examination in their appropriate group in order to be properly understood98.
Concluding Remarks
An examination of these spells has shown that certain ‘transformation’ spells do
conform to Assmann’s classification of mortuary liturgy. Further to this it has been
seen that the ‘transformations’ undergone in the liturgies, had provided a vessel in
which the deceased or living can achieve his primary objective. For the deceased it
had been to reside with Osiris, for the living it was to legitimize their position on
earth. An examination of these liturgies in particular has also shown that Ferden’s
conclusions can be neither accepted nor out right rejected.
96
CT IV, 93c [313]
Willems, 2001, 371
98
Assmann, 2001, 252
97
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CONCLUSION
This examination has attempted to subject the ‘transformation’ spells from Deir elBersheh to a fresh interpretation, with the aid of certain scholarly opinions. As can be
seen from the list of coffins, the corpus of material regarding this type of spell is huge.
In such a short space it was not possible to subject all the spells to a sufficient
examination to reveal their conformity, to either mortuary literature or liturgy and
their intended benefactor. For this reason the reader has been directed, where possible,
to current scholarly articles that agree with the conclusions of my examination, to
broaden the scope of the study.
Initially it was the classification put forth by Assmann that supplied two sections in
which the spells could be categorized, mortuary literature and mortuary liturgy. Upon
examining the ‘transformation’ spells it can be seen that they do conform to use in
both these categories. Regarding mortuary literature, the ‘transformations’ appeared
to benefit the deceased in supplying him with a store of knowledge, enabling his
progression in the afterlife. Specifically regarding the ‘becoming Hetep’ spells, it
could be seen that the group appeared to follow a progressive format: the deceased
first arrived in the field (spell 464), then was told how to become a transfigured spirit
(spell 465), then supplied with a map to progress (spell 466), then used the map to
visit the spirits that would, “cause him to remember what he had forgot,” and become
an equipped (transfigured) spirit (spell 467). Finally, the deceased became permitted
to reside in the field alongside Hetep (spell 468). Thus the whole group of spells
served the deceased as a store of knowledge that enabled him to enter and survive in
the divine realm.
The final spell in the previous sequence, along with spell 703, highlights another
important discovery regarding the uses of the ‘transformation’ spells, as a ‘means to
an end’. Davis’ theory of identification can be employed and adapted for use upon
the Middle Kingdom ‘transformations’. The deceased required a vessel to ascend to
the afterlife, in the Old Kingdom this regularly took the form of a bird; however in the
Middle Kingdom the goals of the dead multiplied and so too the vessels to achieve
these goals. Davis’ use of identification may be evidence of the Old Kingdom royal
precursor to the ‘transformations’ in the Middle Kingdom, essentially both
‘transformation’ and identification served the same purpose. With the development of
rubrics and the Middle Kingdom bureaucratic methods of recording, the Old Kingdom
exclusive royal identification, turned into the Middle Kingdom inclusive
‘transformations’. The ‘Field of Hetep’ spells also demonstrate a close link between
the goals of the deceased in the ‘transformation’ spells and the ‘Book of Two Ways’. I
believe that it cannot be a coincidence that the ‘Hetep spells’ and the ‘Book of Two
Ways’ feature only on the el-Bersheh coffins. The field’s importance is reflected by
the desire of nearly all the deceased to undergo the ‘Field of Hetep’ series of spells,
see appendix 1. Further to this, with the exception of B1Bo, the series of spells
feature on the inside of the coffin; this put them in a primary position for recollection
by the deceased.
Several of the el-Bersheh ‘transformation’ spells conform to Assmann’s classification
as mortuary liturgy. Here the ‘transformations’ became immersed in deeply
mythological language, where the genealogy of Horus and Osiris can be equated to
that of living son and deceased father. Such an idea was achieved by looking at
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various articles by Willems and Assmann, Assmann placed an importance of the
social inclusion of the deceased by the son, so that the father may dwell in the
afterlife. Willems developed this point to suggest that the ritual actions of the son
enabled the deceased to become a transfigured spirit in the afterlife. Thus, this writer
took these ideas a step further to suggest the same principal could be applied for spells
313 and 314, regional variants of spell 312. While these conclusions enabled an
understanding of the ‘transformation’ spells context, it presented a new situation
regarding the benefactor of the ‘transformation’. While the ‘transformation’ of spell
312 was undertaken by the deceased, the ‘transformation’ of spell 313 was undertaken
by the living son, this draws in the opinions of Ferden.
Up to this point the opinion by Ferden that, “the “Transformations” were meant to be
experienced primarily by the living,” has been disproved as under ‘Mortuary
Literature’ and in liturgy 312 the ‘transformation’ served the deceased. On the other
hand spell 313 exemplifies a situation where the living son benefits from the
‘transformation’. This conforms to Ferden’s conclusion, and may well provide a
situation where the living son wished to further legitimize his position through a
closer bond with Horus, his mythological counterpart. Therefore, as was laid out in
the first chapter, this examination has successfully disproved Ferden’s conclusion that
the titles of all the ‘transformation’ spells were primarily intended for the living. It is
important to note that Ferden based this opinion on two firm examples, and therefore
it may have been unwise to state the above conclusion. However it is important to
learn from other scholarly works, therefore Ferden’s article should not be totally
disregarded. While it is true that his conclusions were far too grand to apply to the
whole corpus of ‘transformation’ spells, there is evidence for his theories (spell 313).
With this in mind it is important to remain open minded when examining the
‘transformations’ spells, and not draw quick conclusions based on only a few
examples.
From what has been seen the ‘transformation’ spells from Deir el-Bersheh offer a
huge insight to the Egyptian understanding and social acceptance of the afterlife;
further to this, the various uses for the ‘transformations’ have become clearer.
Unfortunately space has not permitted an in depth analysis of all the ‘transformation’
spells, for this reason the most important issues have been discussed and exemplified.
By including Faulkner’s translations of the analysed spells along with a list of spells
and the coffins they appear on, it is hoped that it may provoke the reader into
acknowledging some analysis’ that, due to lack of space, have been omitted.
23
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Appendix 1
A list of coffins and the ‘transformation’ spells on those coffins. Spells in orange are
discussed in Chapter 2 ‘Mortuary Literature’, spells in light orange belong to the same
chapter but were not discussed. Spells in green are discussed in Chapter 3 ‘Mortuary
Liturgy’, spells in light green belong to the same category but were not discussed.
Spells in white are not classified. The list below was taken from, de Buck, 1954, x-xi
24
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B3L - INNER COFFIN
Spell
273
301
302
464
465
466
Transformation
Falcon
Any God
Falcon
Hetep
Hetep
Hetep
Provenance
Thebes, Saqqara, el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
Volume*
4
4
4
5
5
5
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B3L, (B1L-B2L) B2P
B3L, B1L
B3L, B2P
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo, B2P
B4C - OUTTER COFFIN
Spell
Transformation
Provenance
312 Divine Falcon
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Dendera
*Indicates which of de Bucks Volumes contains the spell
Volume*
4
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B6C, B2Bo, B6Bo, B4C
Coffin B6C
Spell
312
464
465
466
Transformation
Divine Falcon
Hetep
Hetep
Hetep
Provenance
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Dendera
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
Volume*
4
5
5
5
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B6C, B2Bo, B6Bo, B4C
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo, B2P
25
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B9C - INNER COFFIN
Spell
149
150
464
465
466
Transformation
Human Falcon
Horus
Hetep
Hetep
Hetep
Provenance
Suit, el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
Volume*
2
2
5
5
5
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B9C, B2Bo, B4Bo
B9C
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo, B2P
B2P - INNER COFFIN
Spell
271
272
273
274
302
466
374
Transformation
W'-Bird
Heron
Falcon
Divine Falcon
Falcon
Hetep
Bull Snake
Provenance
Thebes, Saqqara, Beni Hassan, el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh, Saqqara
78
79
80
81
303
318
Soul of Shu
Shu
Shu
Shu
Falcon
Nile God
Aswan, el-Bersheh Gebelein
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh, Aswan, Gebelein
el-Bersheh, Aswan
el-Bersheh
Suit, el-Bersheh
Volume*
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B2L, B2P
B2L, B2P, B3L, B1Y
(B1L-B2L) B2P, B3L, B1Y
(B1L-B2L) B2P, B1Y
B3L, B2P
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo, B2P
B2L, B2P
B1P – OUTTER
2
2
2
2
4
4
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C
B3L, B1P
B2L, B7C, B1P
26
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B1L - INNER COFFIN
Spell
285
301
464
465
466
Transformation
Sobek
Any God
Hetep
Hetep
Hetep
Provenance
Saqqara, el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
Volume*
4
4
5
5
5
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B1L, B3L
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo, B2P
B2L - OUTTER COFFIN
78
79
80
81
227
271
272
273
274
292
293
294
295
297
317
318
319
320
321
374
612
703
Soul of Shu
Shu
Shu
Shu
Counterpart of Osiris
W'-Bird
Heron
Heron
Falcon
Heron
Swallow
Swallow
Scribe of Hathor
Four Winds
Nile
Nile God
Nile God
Nile God
Nile God
Bull Snake
Hathor
Lotus-Tank Bird
Aswan, el-Bersheh Gebelein
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh, Aswan, Gebelein
el-Bersheh, Aswan
el-Bersheh, Lisht, Saqqara, Meir
Thebes, Saqqara, Beni Hassan, el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh, Saqqara
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
Suit, el-Bersheh
Suit, el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh, Saqqara
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
2
2
2
2
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
6
6
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C
B2L
B2L, B2P
B2L, B3L, B2P, B1Y
B2L, B3L, B2P, B1Y
B2L, B2P, B1Y
B2L
B2L, B1C
B2L, B1C
B2L, B1C
B2L, B1C
B2L
B2L, B7C, B1P
B2L, B7C
B2L
B2L
B2L, B2P
B2L, B1C
B2L
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B6Bo - FRAGMENTS OF OUTTER COFFIN
Spell
312
Transformation
Divine Falcon
Provenance
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Dendera
Volume*
4
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B6C, B2Bo, B6Bo, B4C
B4Bo - INNER COFFIN
Spell
149
330
Transformation
Human Falcon
Nepher
Suit, el-Bersheh
Suit, el-Bersheh
Provenance
Spell
272
273
274
Transformation
Heron
Heron
Falcon
Provenance
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
Volume*
2
4
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B9C, B2Bo, B4Bo
B2Bo, B4Bo
Volume*
4
4
4
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B2L, B3L, B2P, B1Y
B2L, B3L, B2P, B1Y
B2L, B2P, B1Y
B1Y
B2Be - BOTTOM OF COFFIN
Spell
Transformation
Provenance
268
Sobek
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
276
Hathor
el-Bersheh, Beni Hassan
277
Thoth
el-Bersheh, Beni Hassan
*Indicates which of de Bucks Volumes contains the spell
Volume*
3
4
4
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B1Bo, B2Be
B1Bo, B2Be
B1Bo, B2Be
28
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B5C - INNER COFFIN
Spell
313
314
464
465
466
Transformation
Falcon
Osiris
Hetep
Hetep
Hetep
Provenance
Volume*
4
4
5
5
5
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
78
79
80
81
318
Soul of Shu
Shu
Shu
Shu
Nile God
Aswan, el-Bersheh Gebelein
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh, Aswan, Gebelein
el-Bersheh, Aswan
Suit, el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B5C
B5C
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo, B2P
B7C - OUTTER COFFIN
2
2
2
2
4
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C
B2L, B7C, B1P
B1C
Spell
Transformation
Provenance
286 Falcon
el-Bersheh
293 Swallow
el-Bersheh
294 Swallow
el-Bersheh
295 Scribe of Hathor
el-Bersheh
297 Four Winds
el-Bersheh
326 Horus
el-Bersheh
464 Hetep
el-Bersheh
465 Hetep
el-Bersheh
466 Hetep
el-Bersheh
612 Hathor
el-Bersheh
*Indicates which of de Bucks Volumes contains the spell
Volume*
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B1C
B1C, B2L
B1C, B2L
B1C, B2L
B1C, B2L
B1C
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo
B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B1Bo, B2P
B1C, B2L
29
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B1Bo - OUTTER COFFIN
Spell
75
77
78
79
80
261
268
276
277
290
311
464
465
466
Transformation
Shu
Soul of Shu
Soul of Shu
Shu
Shu
Magician
Sobek
Hathor
Thoth
Child
Khons
Hetep
Hetep
Hetep
Provenance
Suit, Thebes, Meir, Beni Hassan, Aswan, Gebilien
Aswan, el-Bersheh Gebelein
Aswan, el-Bersheh Gebelein
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh, Aswan, Gebelein
el-Bersheh, Suit
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Saqqara
el-Bersheh, Beni Hassan
el-Bersheh, Beni Hassan
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
el-Bersheh
Volume*
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
el-Bersheh Coffins with this spell
B1Bo, B1C, B3C, B2L, B1P, B6C
B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
(B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
B1Bo, (B1C-B1P), B2L, B7C, B1Bo
B1Bo
B1Bo, B2Be
B1Bo, B2Be
B1Bo, B2Be
B1Bo
B1Bo, B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L
B1Bo, B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L
B1Bo, B9C, B5C, B6C, B1C, B3L, B1L, B2P
B2Bo - INNER COFFIN
149 Human Falcon Suit, el-Bersheh
312 Divine Falcon
el-Bersheh, Thebes, Dendera
329 Scribe
Suit, el-Bersheh
330 Nepher
Suit, el-Bersheh
*Indicates which of de Bucks Volumes contains the spell
2
4
4
4
B2Bo, B9C, B4Bo
B2Bo, B6C, B6Bo, B4C
B2Bo
B2Bo, B4Bo
30
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Appendix 2
A list of spells taken from R.O. Faulkner’s translation of the Coffin Texts, Faulkner’s
notes have been left in to note variations in the texts. The first three spells are
analysed within chapter 3, ‘Mortuary Liturgy’.
Spell 312, see Faulkner, 2004, 229 - 233
Spell 313, see Faulkner, 2004, 233 - 235
Spell 314, see Faulkner, 2004, 235 - 237
31
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32
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33
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34
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35
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36
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37
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38
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39
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Appendix 3
These spells are examined in chapter 2, ‘Mortuary Literature’. They are taken from
Faulkner’s translation of the Coffin Texts, his notes are left in to show any regional
variations.
Spell 464, see Faulkner, 2004,
Spell 465, see Faulkner, 2004,
Spell 466, see Faulkner, 2004,
Spell 467, see Faulkner, 2004,
Spell 468, see Faulkner, 2004,
Spell 703, see Faulkner, 2004, 265
40
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41
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42
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43
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44
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45
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46
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47
369134
48
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49
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50
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51
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52
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Figure 1
Distribution of Middle Kingdom coffins across Egypt, see Hoffmeier, 1992, 47
53
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Figure 2
Hand drawing of inside coffin B9C showing spell 466, the Roman numerals
correspond to the numerals besides the text in Faulkner’s translation of the spell. For
this figure, see de Buck, 1954,
54
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Figure 3 and 4
Hand drawing of spell 466 inside coffin B5C and B1C, the Roman numerals
correspond to the numerals besides the text in Faulkner’s translation of the spell. For
these figures, see de Buck, 1954,
55
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Figure 5
Hand drawing of Coffin B1L, the Roman numerals corresponds to the numerals
besides the text in Faulkner’s translation of the spell. For this figures, see de Buck,
1954,
56
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Figure 6
Hand drawing of inside of coffin B3L and B2P, the Roman numerals correspond to
the numerals besides the text in Faulkner’s translation of the spell. For these figures,
see de Buck, 1954,
57
369134
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