Oceanography
History of Marine Science (Ch 1)
A. Beginnings of marine science-voyaging- ("traveling for
specific purpose")
-Phoenicians (= 1200 B.C.) in Mediterranean -Greeks (900-700
B.C.) into eastern Atlantic -Greeks noticed N-S current at
Gibraltar, thought Atlantic was via river -Greeks named Atlantic
"Okeanus" (Greek for "river"); Latin derivative from Greek
-"Oceanus", which in turn became root for English word "Ocean"
-Chinese - inland waterways feeding into Pacific -PolynesiansSE Asia &Mid-Pacific island
•1 st charts made 800 B.C. - started as notes to jog memory
for hazards, etc.
B. Growth & progress In marine science
• 300 B.C. - Library of Alexandria in Egypt, started by Alexander
the Great -By law, all data was copied from incoming ships &
overland caravans, originals kept in library
•~ 230 B.C. - Erastosthenes (2nd librarian of Alexandria) -1st to
calculate circumfirance of Earth -If shadow angles diff, sun
could not be directly over head at both places (demonstrate
here w/flat & curved surfs) -Therefore,surface of Earth must
be curved.
Curved how much? Let's look at data ...show how Erastosthenes
figured it out . .. FiG 2.1
-Other library contributions:
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-Celestial navigation (using stars & planets)
-Cartography (map-& chart-making)
-Latitude & Longitude (Erastothenes invented originally)
-Later modified to present form by Hipparchus (165-120
BC) (he divided globe into 360°)
-Still later refined by Ptolemy (90-168)
-Oriented North up & East to right
-Divided degrees into minutes & seconds
(He also screwed up Erastothenes' correct estimate of
circumference & made it smaller- may have influenced Columbus &
other voyagers to take risk later in history)
-Last librarian was Hypatia, the 1 st woman to achieve recognition as
a scientist & philosopher
-Unfortunately, these traits were considered pagan by early
Christians, & Hypatia was murdered & the library burned in 415 AD
(lost 700,000 documents)
-Scholars dispersed, & Alexandria ceased as center of learning
C. Dark Ages in the West (476 AD to European Renaissance) -Most
progress in marine science during this time came from Arabs, Chinese,
Vikings, and Oceanians (ancestors of Polynesians)
-Oceanians Fig 2.3
-Now in a it 1,000 islands in the Pacific
-Started colonizing 30,000 yrs ago; cradle settled by
___ BC
-Large dispersion & voyaging 300-600 AD
-Vikings (from Norway & Denmark) actively plundered
Europe during Dark Ages (800-900 AD) -As Europeans
began to band together, Vikings colonized elsewhere
(Iceland, Greenland) -Newfoundland ("Vineland")
accidentally discovered 986 AD, colonized 1000 AD,
abandoned 1020 AD
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D. European Renaissance - voyaging for trade - the Age of
Discovery
-Search for new East-West trading route began because desert
caravan routes were cut off when Turks captured Constantinople in
1453
-Crusades also ongoing in 1400s, Europeans needed trade for add'I
money to finance Holy War
-Henry the Navigator funded expeditions 1451-1460, opened
west coast of Africa.
(His sailors may have been among first Europeans to use the
compass.)
-Christopher Columbus discovered New World by accident while trying
to find a new sea route to the East. He's given credit for discovery due
to his "media blitz". Never did actually see N. America -Believed he
had found islands off the east coast of Asia (which is what he wanted
to find)
---Interesting note here - Columbus made smallest estimate for size of
the ocean by any navigator in modern history (only 14% of
earth’s surface) by using Ptolemy's estimate for circumference of the
earth, ... do you suppose that this miscalculation emboldened him to
continue to press on for funding for his voyage? If he had really known
how large the ocean is, might he have let fear keep him from pushing
forward?
•Others followed, found error in Columbus' belief that he had found
east side of Asia ...charts as early as 1507 show "America" in its
correct position, separate from Asia Fig 2.6
-Ferdinand Magellan tried to open a trade route for Spain to the
Orient (not unlike what Columbus had tried to do) - his crew
wound up sailing around the world in 3 years, although he was
killed midway through the voyage, and only 18 of the original
crew of 250 survived.
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E. Voyaging for science (18th h 19th centuries) -Began
w/James Cook, HMS Endeavour, in 1768 -"1st marine
scientist"
-Very accurate navigator-his maps used in WW"
I)
-Accurate charting (as well as scientific sampling
and measurement) requires
precise navigation
-What device allowed Cook to determine his precise
longitude? (hint- Columbus didn't have this device)
-Early to mid -19th century - Sir John and Sir James Clark Ross
-Improved deep-water sampling & sounding techniques
-U.S. Exploring Expedition (1838) - helped establish natural
sciences as reputable professions in U.S.
•HMS Challenger (1872-1876) - 1st expedition devoted completely
to marine science-initiated by Thomson & Murray (Univ of
Edinburgh) -They coined term oceanography -Found 4,717 new
species of marine life, some at depths greater than believed
possible -Took salinity, temp, density measurements -Collected
new info on currents, meteorology, sediments, reefs -Discovered
manganese nodules, sparking interest in deep-sea mining
-Unqualified success -History's longest continuous scientific
oceanographic expedition
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F. 20th century voyaging for science (ambitious, expensive)
-Early in century-dramatic advances in polar
oceanography (Hansen)
•1925 - Germans - 1st use of echo sounder - found
seafloor rugged and varied, not flat as expected
•19 1 - confirmation of Mid-Atlantic Ridge by 1 st
purpose-built US oceanographic ship (Atlantis)
•1937 to 1942 - acquisition of data leading to publication of
The Ocean first modern reference on marine science
•1951 - launch of Challenger II -precise depth
measurements in Atlantic, Pacific, Indian Oceans
•1960- WHO descended into Challenger Deep
(Marianas Trench) in WHAT?
•1968 - Glomar Challenger - set out to test the hypothesis
of sea-floor spreading by coring sea-bottom sediments & rock
-Capable of drilling in 20,000 ft of
water
Historical aside - your instructor spent time in late 70's on one of
the Challenger's smaller sister ships in the Gulf or Mexico drilling
for oil & gas
•19f 5 - JOIDES Resolution - continues the work of
Glomar Challenger
G. Oceanographic institutions/consortia
-1st one started in 1906 (Musee Oceanographique) by
Prince Albert I of Monaco (produced Jacques Cousteau,
co-Inventor of
....... . WHAT?)
-Most famous U.S. institutions: Lamont-Doherty,
Scripps, Woods Hole
-Active gov't agencies: Dept of Navy, Nat'l Oeanic
& Atmospheric Administration (NOAH), NASA