Supplemental Materials
Response to Instruction in Preschool: Results of Two Randomized Studies with Children
At Risk of Reading Difficulties
by C. Lonigan & B. M. Phillips, 2015, Journal of Educational Psychology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000054
Appendix S1
Classroom Observations: Frequency and Quality of Instructional Activities
As part of the larger project in which this study was embedded, we observed preschool
classrooms three times during the school year using a modified version of the Teacher Behavior
Rating Scales (TBRS; Landry, Crawford, Gunnewig, & Swank, 2000). The original TBRS
included 50 items concerning the quantity and quality of specific teacher behaviors and
classroom characteristics that are grouped into 12 subscales. Six subscales relate to overall
classroom characteristics or general teaching behavior (e.g., teacher sensitivity, discipline,
learning centers), and six subscales relate to specific instructional activities (e.g., book reading,
print activities, phonological awareness). Items on each subscale are rated on a 4-point (1 =
rarely occurred, 4 = often occurred) quantity scale and 3-point quality scale. The revised TBRS
included 12 additional items for phonological awareness activities, including a rating of
phonological awareness activities to indicate whether the instruction was explicit (i.e.,
instructional activities that include modeling and explanation of key terms and concepts, use of
scaffolding and corrective feedback when appropriate) or implicit (i.e., simple exposure to
different sound patterns and teachers’ commenting about shared sounds between words [e.g.,
“these words start with the same sound”]).
The TBRS-R was completed in the classrooms in the larger study by trained observers
who observed classrooms for a minimum of two hours and a maximum of four hours, depending
on the structure of the preschool (mean duration = 168.2 minutes; SD = 25.5). Analyses of
differences of TBRS-R scores between preschools that were a part of the school district’s Title I
program and other local preschools that were not affiliated with the school district used all
available observations. Analyses were conducted as mixed models in SPSS (Version 19) using
classroom and school as random factors (i.e., observations were nested within teachers’
classrooms that were nested within schools). Descriptive statistics and effect sizes are shown in
Table S1. The classrooms in the district’s Title I preschools had a higher frequency, quality, or
both for oral language activities, print knowledge activities, phonological awareness activities,
and math activities than did classrooms in private preschools, and classrooms in the district
schools had a higher quality of center activities, more small-group instruction, and more team
teaching than did classrooms in the private preschools.
Response to Instruction in Preschool S3
Table S1
Comparison of Frequency and Quality of Instructional Activities in District versus Other
Preschools using Teacher Behavior Rating Scales-Revised
Preschool Type
Subscale
Other
School District
Mean
(SD)
Mean
(SD)
11.21
(7.11)
11.25
(7.89)
.01
14.01
(9.50)
14.04
(10.32)
.00
20.94
(6.39)
23.06
(7.11)
.31**
26.42
(9.53)
28.50
(9.90)
.21+
9.87
(5.61)
10.98
(5.50)
.20+
13.53
(8.30)
14.98
(7.89)
.18
12.52
(10.15)
15.46
(11.13)
.27**
13.13
(11.03)
16.83
(12.70)
.30**
Phonological Unit Size Quality
3.01
(2.82)
4.34
(4.07)
.36***
Number of Explicit Activities
0.56
(0.78)
0.91
(1.02)
.37***
Number of Implicit Activities
0.68
(0.86)
0.72
(0.86)
.05
6.02
(4.85)
6.15
(4.77)
.03
7.76
(7.03)
7.87
(6.58)
.02
6.39
(5.79)
8.71
(5.96)
.39***
8.62
(8.28)
11.48
(8.25)
.35***
4.19
(1.56)
4.51
(1.33)
.23+
17.50
(6.51)
18.95
(4.96)
.26*
Small Group Instruction
0.39
(0.48)
0.71
(0.45)
.70***
Team Teaching Activities
Frequency
1.92
(2.01)
3.60
(1.90)
.87***
7.78
(7.10)
13.30
(5.36)
.92***
Book Reading Activities
Frequency
Quality
Oral Language Activities
Frequency
Quality
Print Knowledge Activities
Frequency
Quality
Phonological Awareness Activities
Frequency
Overall Quality
Writing Activities
Frequency
Quality
Mathematics Activities
Frequency
Quality
Center Activities
Frequency
Quality
Quality
+
p < .10, *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
Hedges g
Response to Instruction in Preschool S4
Appendix S2
Scope and Sequence of Code and Language Strands for Preschool RTI Intervention: Year 1
Schedule
Theme
Oral Language
Example Target
Vocabulary from
Sample Books
Phonological
Awareness
Print Knowledge
(Letter Name)
Weeks 1-3
Fairy Tales
Sample story book:
The Little Red Hen
Comparing size
attributes
-ing Verbs
Wh-Questions
Prepositions (in, out,
on, off)
Barn
Wheat
Wagon
Compound Words
Initial Letters in
Child’s Name
B, A, O, S, C, D
Weeks 4-5
Transportation
Sample story book:
Road Builders
Prepositions (in front,
behind, under, over)
Wh-Questions
Smooth
Center
Boss
2 Syllable Words
Review
M, K, T, I
Weeks 6-7
Bugs
Sample story book:
Over in the Garden
Regular Past tense
Wh-Questions
Personal Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Emotion Labels
Vine
Garden
Caterpillar
2 Syllable Words
Cumulative
Review
L, H, E, X
Weeks 8-10
Animals
Sample story book:
Edward the Emu
Parts of a Whole
Function/Description
of objects
Wh-Questions
Zoo
Wonderful
Hissing
Onset -Rime
Cumulative
Review
P, Z, R,J, W, Y
Week 11
Ocean
Sample story book:
Don’t Eat the
Teacher
Categories/Classificati
on
Irregular Past Tense
Flapping
Seaweed
Nibble
Onset -Rime
Cumulative
Review
Q, F, G, N, U, V
Each unit included
multiple
Each unit included
multiple
Note. Each storybook was read several
times in one week. Aligned target
Interventionists were provided a set of
rotating activities assigned to specific days
Response to Instruction in Preschool S5
Vocabulary and oral language skill
activities were integrated before, during
and after book reading with story props
and other manipulative materials. Story
Event Sequencing and Recall questions
were embedded in all units. All
interventionists were provided a
standardized script, with specific, childfriendly definitions and the target book
illustration for teaching each new
vocabulary word.
in which to conduct language-focused skill
building including sorting (e.g., place all the
thin bears in this cup and the fat bears in that
cup), behavioral and oral responding to whquestions and other specific instructions
(e.g., help me finish my sentence about this
picture card, ‘today I jump, but yesterday I
_____’(jumped). ).
manipulatives
including word
puzzles, memory
game cards, and
matching strips
(e.g., to match
rhyming words).
Specific games
were assigned each
day.
manipulatives,
including magnetic
letters, letter cards,
game boards, &
letter tracing
materials.
Specific games
were assigned each
day.
Response to Instruction in Preschool S6
Response to Instruction in Preschool S7
Appendix S3
Scope and Sequence of Code and Language Strands for Preschool RTI Intervention: Year 2
Schedule
Oral Language
Focus
Oral Language Tasks
Example Target
Vocabulary
Phonological
Awareness
Print Knowledge
(Name & Sound)
Week 1
Colors
Labeling/Sorting; Elaborated
Noun Phrases; Wh-Questions
Primary colors
Black/white
Compound Words
Initial Letters in
Child’s Name; A
Week 2
Shapes &
Colors
Labeling /Sorting; Elaborated
Noun Phrases; Asking Questions
Rectangle, Oval,
Square
Compound Words
Letters in Child’s
Name
A, U
Week 3
Relatives (er)
Labeling/Sorting;
Compare/Contrast
Long, Heavy, Soft
Compound Words
B, Cumulative
Review
Week 4
Comparisons
Labeling/Sorting;
Compare/Contrast
Same, Different,
Alike
2 Syllable Words
M, Cumulative
Review
Week 5
Animals
Labeling/Sorting; Part/Whole;
Compare/Contrast
Varied Animal
Names
Pointed, Claws,
Stripes
2 Syllable Words
P, Cumulative
Review
Week 6
Prepositions &
Spatial
Relations &
Animals
Prepositional Phrases; WhQuestions
In, On, Under
2 Syllable Words
T, Cumulative
Review
Week 7
Prepositions &
Spatial
Relations &
Animals
Prepositional Phrases; WhQuestions
In Front, Behind
Onset -Rime
D, Cumulative
Review
Week 8
Body Parts
Labeling; Giving Directions
Thumb, Shoulder,
Wrist
Onset -Rime
N, Cumulative
Review
Response to Instruction in Preschool S8
Week 9
Action Verbs &
Body Parts
Present Tense Phrases; Giving
Directions
Pull, Lift, Grab
Onset -Rime
F, Cumulative
Review
Week 10
Action Verbs
& Animals
Present Tense Phrases; Giving
Directions
Bend, Twist,
Stretch
Cumulative
Review
J, Cumulative
Review
Week 11
Prepositions &
Body Parts
Prepositional Phrases; Giving
Directions
Cumulative Review
Cumulative
Review
G, Cumulative
Review
Each unit included
multiple
manipulatives
including word
puzzles, memory
game cards, and
matching strips
(e.g., to match
rhyming words).
Specific games
were assigned each
day.
Each unit included
multiple hands-on
manipulatives,
including magnetic
letters, letter cards,
& letter tracing
materials. Specific
games were
assigned each day.
Interventionists used upward
and downward differentiated
instruction procedures to elicit
extended language from
children to elicit one word,
multi-word, and complete
sentence responses
Interventionists were provided a set of unit-specific
activities assigned to each day in which to conduct
language-focused skill building including sorting (e.g.,
place the bear behind the chair), behavioral and oral
responding to wh-questions and other specific
instructions, and elicitation of elaborated expressive
language (e.g., ‘{peer name} bend your wrist’.).