McShane and Travaglione 2007 defined Organisational Behaviour as the study of
what people think, feel and do in and around organisations. This study is done by
taking a systematic approach when viewing the relationships between employees
and management or organisation. It tends to study individuals, teams or the
organisation as a whole and its characteristics and try to influence them and shape
them in terms of organisational settings. The study of OB helps both organisations
and people to improve relationships, working towards common objectives.
In this literature review, closer looks will be taken at specific behaviours people in an
organisation tend to adopt, such as counterproductive behaviours, organisational
citizenship, and the reasons why people adopt those behaviours, and how to
influence or shape negative behaviours in a way that meets organisational
objectives. Also, the role of communications between employees and managers will
be discussed as a way to avoid such negative work behaviours.
Counterproductive work behaviours can be viewed as a form of protest in which
organisational members express dissatisfaction with or attempt to resolve injustice
within the organisation (Kelloway, Francis, Prosser & Cameron 2009)
Common forms of counterproductive behaviours may include ineffective job
performance, absenteeism, turnover, unsafe behaviours and it may even include
criminal activity and sexual harassment, which clearly have very negative
consequences and can be very destructive and costly to the organisation.
For example, organisations set goals and objectives that they (with help of
employees) want to achieve, whether in the short or the long term. These objectives
may include, profitability, safe workplace, the reputation of being socially responsible,
and so on. According to Jex’s definition of counterproductive behaviour, any
employee who hinders the achievement of organisational objectives is being
counterproductive. Counterproductive behaviour is also a result of the inner motive of
the employee. For instance, a retail employee who steals merchandise from his/her
employer is obviously doing it intentionally and most likely, for a personal gain. On
the other hand, it is entirely possible for an employee to engage in counterproductive
behaviour without intending to. For example, an employee who is poorly trained or
lacking in ability may want very badly to perform well, but may not accomplish that
goal (Jex 2002).
Based on the definition provided by Kelloway, Francis, Prosser and Cameron,
counterproductive behaviour (whether it was intentionally or unintentionally done)
occurs with no doubt, in most (if not all) organisations, and in many forms.
Poor job performance is a common example of counterproductive work behaviours. It
is often difficult for an organisation to recognise poor performance and in which level
of the organisation it is actually occurring. It simply consumes a lot of time to detect it,
and difficult to measure. And sometimes, managers of an organisation take poor
performance as an intentional action, while in some cases, it is not.
The level of training and the technologies adopted highly influence the level of
productivity of an employee. If an employee does not receive adequate training, he/
she will not be able to be productive enough.
It can also be caused by low self-esteem or negative psychological effects. For
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example, a teacher, regularly getting negative comments about his/her teaching
performance or capabilities. Eventually, this teacher will lose motivation to perform
well (Jex 2002).
Causes of counterproductive behaviours may not be clear for some organisations.
Therefore, managers should try to closely examine employee behaviours, to collect
more information about the actual atmosphere of the work, and the consistency of a
particular behaviour, because often, managers do not have a clear vision of the dayto-day work, and the day-to-day communications or relationships between
employees, until, they come to realise the existence of counterproductive behaviours
or actions.
Communications between employees and their employers can prevent all forms of
counterproductive behaviours. In general terms, communication can be described as
a process which conveys information between people (Rollinson 1993).
In some organisations, employees do not get to hear about even minor matters which
affect them until they are overtaken by events. This can result in employees,
developing extremely poor opinion of management, and they sometimes, impute a
negative motive for them, being “kept in the dark”. Ineffective or inadequate
communications or flow of information can quickly lead to speculations and rumours.
It is better to regard effective communication as a process which allows the
differences between employees and managers to surface and be dealt with. More
optimistically, it will perhaps go further by helping employees and managers to better
understand each other’s viewpoint and find mutually accepted solutions to their
differences ( Rollinson 1993).
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) is one other common positive behaviour
adopted by employees who are happy about their work. It is defined as the individual
behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal
reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the
organisation (Maharaj & Schelcheter 2007). That is, the employee voluntarily adopts
this behaviour and not required or compulsory as part of their job.
Research generally agrees that satisfied employees deliver satisfied customers. The
main two reasons for this is that if employees are happy and satisfied about their job,
they will display friendliness to customers, which in turn, encourages customers to be
loyal to that specific organisation. The second reason is that if the organisation
succeeded in keeping its employees satisfied, employees are less likely to quit their
jobs, eventually, employees gain better knowledge and skills and better serve
customers. This also means that there’s a consistent service, because customers are
served by the same employees. (McShane and Travaglione 2007)
Happy employees are more likely to develop a sense of meaning and belonging to
the organisation, and more likely to do volunteer things altruistically. For example,
helping other employees, performing extra duties, and so on.
Job characteristics (that is, the attributes of a particular job) may affect OCB through
employees' perceptions, for example, the sense of responsibility, commitment of
completing a task, etc… regarding the motivating potential inherent in job
characteristics (Chen and Chiu 2009). An employee who’s more committed to
completing his/her tasks, is more likely to value and understand the workplace
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environment and the relationships among other members of the organisation,
creating a sense of meaningfulness of the job, and as a result, enhancing OCB.
Chen and Chiu suggest that employees with motivation and commitment to their
organisation, are more likely to display higher job involvement (that is, the extent in
which an employee is committed and involved with his/her job), and are more willing
to put more effort to fulfil their duties and might as well, fulfil extra duties. Employees
who demonstrate a sense of identity towards their organisation are more likely to
perform well, considering their work as the center of their self-concept.
Based on a research, adopted by Maharaj and Schechter (2007) management
should focus more on OCB to gain a competitive advantage, and promote the display
of OCB.
Job satisfaction can be defined as one's feelings or state-of-mind regarding the
nature of their work. Job satisfaction can be influenced by a variety of factors, for
example, the quality of one's relationship with their supervisor, the quality of the
physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfilment in their work, etc. (Free
Management Library 2008). If an employee is satisfied with his/her job and the
environment of the workplace, he/she will be motivated to increase their productivity
and the willingness to perform better.
Dawis (1992) points out that it is important to know that there are different kinds of
job satisfaction. Intrinsic job satisfaction is when employees consider only the kind of
work they do (that is, the tasks they perform). Extrinsic job satisfaction is when
employees consider the conditions of work such as their pay, fellow workers,
supervisors, etc…
These two types of satisfaction are different, and it helps to look at jobs from both
points of view. For example, if an employee is dissatisfied with their job, it is
important to think of which extent they are actually dissatisfied, and ask themselves
whether they are dissatisfied with the conditions of work or the actual tasks they do.
Knowing the reason of dissatisfaction delivers a more relevant solution for this
problem.
The second important thing to recognise is that job satisfaction is a result of the
fulfilment of job expectations (that is, what employees look for in a job). Job
expectations can include, the kind of work that makes the best use of one's abilities
and gives a feeling of accomplishment, having a secure job that provides a steady
employment, working for an organisation that has a good reputation that one can be
proud of working for, being able to progress in the job or career, working with
coworkers who are competent and congenial, being paid at least enough to meet
one's needs and being paid fairly in comparison to others, having an immediate
supervisor who is competent, considerate and fair, having working hours that allow
one to compromise between work and family or to pursue other interests and live the
preferred lifestyle, having benefits that meet one's needs and compare well with
those of others, having physical working conditions that are safe, not injurious to
health, not stressful. And the list goes on…
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If most or all of employee expectations are fulfilled, it is more likely that employees
will become more involved with their job, put extra effort to get the job done, and
eventually, their psychological needs are satisfied.
From the different opinions used in this literature review, it can be clearly seen that all
the different authors have agreed upon the different types of organisational
behaviours and their causes. Kelloway, Francis, Prosser and Cameron have agreed
with Jex on the definition of counterproductive behaviour and the forms it can take,
whether it is done intentionally or unintentionally. While Rollinson stated that the
causes of such behaviours are unclear unless communications between supervision
and employees take place to minimise conflicts, achieve convergence of views and
keep employees updated about what happens in the organisation. Maharaj and
Scheltcher defined Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) as the individual’s
discretionary behaviour towards the organisation that is not recognised by the
organisation’s reward system. They pointed out that such behaviours are beneficial
to the organisation as employees are more willing to help other employees, might as
well get extra work done, and so on. They also claimed that management should
focus more on OCB to gain a competitive advantage.
Chen and Chiu suggested that employees who show commitment and job
involvement are more likely to better understand the environment of the organisation
and the relationships among other employees and with their supervisors.
Job satisfaction is one other indicator of employee’s OCB. According to the Free
Management Library, job satisfaction is one's feelings or state-of-mind regarding the
nature of their work. Chen and Chui suggested that the fulfilment of job
characteristics and employee perceptions creates an inner motivation to put more
effort into their work, have more commitment towards the organisation, become more
satisfied and eventually more involved with their job, creating OCB.
Dawis pointed out the importance of distinguishing between the two different types of
job satisfaction (Intrinsic and Extrinsic satisfaction). He also suggested that the
fulfilment of job characteristics and employee perceptions creates an inner motivation
to put more effort into their work, have more commitment towards the organisation
and eventually become more involved with their job, creating OCB.
When two experienced figures have different views and ideas about the same point
(i.e. the organisational behaviours in an organisation), they are actually putting these
ideas and views out of their experience and feedback individually, and each one of
them has definitely different reaction and perception according to firstly their
satisfactions and secondly to the different environments where they gained these
views. Even if they agree about a certain point in this regard, they may differ in the
means or methods used to achieve same results, because there might be different
methodologies leading to same outcomes, and each one of these figures may
suggest different methodology but both agree to achieve same outcomes. Ultimately,
having these differences between the two will impact positively on the overall
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knowledge and will rise further discussions of how and what is the best way to meet
the goals.
In any organisation, whether employers or employees all need to have a reasonable
exposure to organisational behaviours to achieve the planned objectives of their
organisation. The behaviours of the employees are based on their perceptions,
hence, it is important that management of an organisation understands these
perceptions by discussions, listening and communications. This will reduce conflict
between managers and their employees be holding circular meetings together, and
having mutual feedbacks. It is ideal to hold these meetings in order to reinforce the
certain behaviours desired to see increase. Furthermore, improving social
relationships between employees would enhance the team work which is crucial in
supporting and implementing the planned organisational objectives.
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References:
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Jex, S.M, 2002, Organisational Psychology, John Wiley & Sons, INC, New York
Kelloway E, Franicis C, Prosser M & Cameron J, 2009, Counterproductive work
behaviour as protest, Department of Psychology, Saint Mary’s University, NS,
Canada, 7 Aug 2009.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6W4J4W55T391&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&
_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=d9f92ca3c4
fee695994118e8172227d6
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Rollinson D, 1993, Understanding Employee Relations, Addison-Wesley, UK
Maharaj I, Schelchter A, 2007, ‘Management Dynamics’, MEANING IN LIFE AND
MEANING OF WORK: RELATIONSHIPS with ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIOUR, COMMITMENT, AND JOB SATISFACTION, Vol.16, Iss.3, P24, 18
pgs.
McShane S, Travaglione T, 2007, Organisational Behaviour, 2nd Edition,
McGraw-Hill Australia ptd ltd, NSW, Australia, Alisa Brackley du Bois.
Chen C.c, Chiu S.F, 2009, ‘The Journal of Social Psychology’, THE MEDIATING
ROLE of JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIOUR, Vol.149, iss.4, Pg.474, 21 pgs.
Free Management Library, 2008, Job Satisfaction, Free Management Library,
Minnesota, 8 Aug 2009, http://managementhelp.org/prsn_wll/job_stfy.htm
Dawis R, 1992, Job Satisfaction, Lawrence K. Jones, 8 Aug 2009,
http://www.careerkey.org/asp/career_options/job_satisfaction.html
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1. Organisational Citizenship Behaviour is agreed to be a beneficial and a positive
behaviour. If a person has the sense of responsibility and has the knowledge may
feel he/she is better than other or new employees and may develop a sense of
authority, how can management deal with this behaviour?
2. Communication is often confused with “sharing management” with employees.
How can management make it clear to employees that it is not part of their task
to share management, but only share information?
3. Employee perceptions can vary a lot from one employee to another. How can
management fulfil all those different perceptions and achieve the maximum job
satisfaction?
4. How can management know the real reason behind poor job performance?
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