Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Irish Bardic Poetry and the
Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa
Draft written for reflection by Shiraz Ramji
In this paper I will focus on selected pieces of the Irish Bardic poetry
created/written by dispossessed women (banfilid) and men (filid) during the
seventeenth and the eighteenth century to communicate and transmit historical,
religious, social, educational and political experiences of colonization by England
from one generation to the next. I will then review the similarities of Irish Bardic
poetry with the poetry and songs written by the dispossessed women and men in
North America and South Africa in the twentieth century to protest against
European Colonization. Ireland became independent in 1922. South Africa became
independent in 1994. North American Native populations, including the First
Nations people in Canada are struggling for their land rights. I have included the
national anthems of Ireland, South Africa, and the First Nations people to
demonstrate their poetic tradition of expressing their struggles, hopes, and future
visions.
Bardic poetry refers to the writings of poets trained in the Bardic Schools of
Ireland and Gaelic parts of Scotland before the eighteenth century (Bergin, 1970).
Most of the texts preserved are in the in Middle Irish or Early Modern Irish. Old
Irish refers to the period between sixth and ninth century, Middle Irish refers to the
period from tenth to twelfth century, and Early Modern Irish refers to the period
between thirteenth to seventeenth century (Simms, 1998). Prior to the acquisition of
the Roman alphabet along with the organized Catholic Christianity in the fifth
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
century, Ireland was a non-literate society (McCone, 1991). Poetic schools existed in
Ireland before Christianity and the training of poets received had its origin in the
druidic learning associated with the religion of Celtic Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. In
early writings the term “bard” and “fili” are both used for a “poet”. A fili is
someone with a special responsibility for traditional knowledge, laws, language,
grammar and senchus, whereas a bard was a poet or versifier.
Irish filid, file, and bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly
trained learned poets. The bards were immersed in the history and traditions of clan
and country, as well as in the technical requirements of verse that was syllabic and
used assonance, half rhyme and alliteration. As officials of the court of king or
chieftain, they performed a number of official roles. They were chronicles and
satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed
them. Bards work consisted of extended genealogies and journalistic accounts of the
deed of their lords and ancestors. The Irish bard was not necessarily an inspired
poet, but rather a professor of literature and man of letter, highly trained in the use
of polished literary medium, belonging to a hereditary caste in a an aristocratic
society, holding an official position by virtue of his training, his learning, his
knowledge of the history, and traditions of his country and his clan (Bergin, 1912).
The early modern Gaeltacht (speakers of Irish Gaelic) maintained both a low
and high culture entirely in the oral domain. Ireland had maintained a class of
professional poets and guardians of culture, the filid, since before the birth of
Christ, who passed knowledge from one generation to the next via a highly efficient
system of oral teaching and verse composition. According to Osborn Bergin (1970),
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
almost all bardic poetry is written in one standard literary dialect, and remained
unchanged for five hundred years. Since poetry was a profession, akin to, and of
equal status with, law, it excluded women. Low culture was analogous to poetic
activity in British Isles: mnemonic verse, elegy, romance, entertainment, satire.
According to Jane Stevenson and Peter Davidson (2001), who have compiled
an anthology of early modern women poets, the period 1520-1700 was passing of the
old order in Gaelic society. The Elizabethan and Cromwellian colonization of
Ireland were attended by a deliberate attempt to destroy the guardians of the Gaelic
culture as natural leaders of resistance to colonization by England. In sixteenthcentury Ireland, poets, scholars, and men of learning were hanged or otherwise
murdered as deliberate policy, while those who survived were prosecuted as
“corroughes, bards, rhymers and common idle men and women” (Stevenson &
Davidson, 2001). The sophisticated, intricate poetry of bardic order was profoundly
vulnerable in this new political climate, particularly given the length and intensity of
the training of a fili, and the flight , death, or proscription of the noble families who
had patronized them (Stevenson & Davidson, 2001). The chief effect of this on
poetry is the breakdown of the classic Gaelic literary language. The Gaelic poetry
from the sixteenth century is mostly “art” poetry, inter textual with a poetic
tradition going back a thousand years., syllabic in structure, and requiring a trained
ear to be appreciated, while from the seventeenth century, we have a folk poetry,
composed in common, demonic meters, responding in less sophisticated ways to the
immediate pressure of events or emotions. This poetry has regular stress (Stevenson
& Davidson, 2001).
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
The destruction of the class of professional poets may have in itself opened
up opportunities for women (Stevenson & Davidson, 2001).. Female poets were
known in literature, legislation, or life. Few women had access to bardic schools
because of rough conditions of the trainee poet’s life. The qualifications required
were reading well, writing in mother-tongue, and a strong memory. The daughter
of poets are probably the only ones that could be educated as descendents of the
poets and if reputable within their tribes (Bergin, 1912). Bardic schools were located
in the solitary recess of a garden, or in an isolated enclosure out of reach of any
noise. The structure of bardic school was a sheltered, low hut with limited furniture
consisting of a table, and chairs and cloth hangers. The beds were kept at
convenient distance from each other. There were no windows to let in the daylight.
Only candles were used for the light. (Bergin, 1912).
According to Bergin (1912), the students, after screening with examinations,
were divided into classes according to age, genius, and years of schooling. The
professors gave a subject suitable to the capacity of each class. They also determined
the number of
rhimes,
and
observed
the syllabus,
quartans,
concord,
correspondence, termination, and the union according to the rules. Every Saturday
and on the eves of festival days, the students of bardic schools lived amongst the
Gentlemen and rich farmers of the country. The course was six to seven years
before a degree or mastery was conferred. In the middle Ages, bardic poetry
excluded women as a policy. Women’s relation to bardic poetry was as patrons
(Stevenson & Davidson, 2001).
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Irish poetry of the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries is the
resistance poetry of colonized dispossessed people. According to Sean O’Tuama
(1981), about 85 percent of Irish land was transferred to the English colonialists.
Most of the Irish poetry during the colonial period is political poetry, or a response
to social and linguistic injustice. The purely personal lyric voice is rare and often
expressed in folk poetry. A strong personal feeling is attached to public issues. And
it is a kind of poetry that demands a listening rather than a reading audience. Irish
poetry is associated with music, and the music of words gives it its special aesthetic
character (Knott).
Poetry is a genre frequently chosen by Irish, Native Americans and South
Africans resistance writers because it can be shared immediately, either by being
recited or by being circulated in cyclostyled paper. A poem is a hiding place to
express immediacy of emotion in a concentrated form. Resistance poets write to
make others think, to clarify their won thinking, and to reveal repressed truths to
the world. Poetry is easier to copy, distribute, memorize, and chant or perform
publicly. The colonial governments tolerated poetry because it reached a smaller
audience. Resistance poetry transmits history as it simultaneously advocates
revolutionary change. Resistance poetry preserves and redefines cultural images for
particular historical moments. According to Ezekial Maphahele, a South African
resistance writer, poetry is “a fugitive means of expression (Alvarez-Pereyre, 1979).
In the Appendix are some of the poems written by dispossessed women and
men of Ireland, South Africa, and Native America to demonstrate their political,
social, religious, and historical experiences of colonization by England and other
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
European countries. In the Appendix A, are the first three stanzas from the national
anthems of Ireland, South Africa and Native Canada to show their resistance to
colonization and their hopes and visions. The commonalities of the three anthems
are about the ownership and protection of the ancestral land. Majority of the
population of Ireland and South Africa are Christians. However the national
anthem of Ireland does not mention “God” in the whole anthem.
The South African anthem written in 1997 in five ethnic and racial languages
for reconciliation, asks God to bless Africa and accept their citizens as the children
of God. The anthems of Ireland written in 1907 and Native Canada written in 1993
are demanding recognition of their history of ownership of their ancestral land.
Unlike South Africa, Catholic Christianity came to Ireland before the colonization
of Ireland in the seventeenth century. The English colonizers were protestant
Christians, and had very little success in converting Irish Catholics to protestant
Christians. Native Canadians were indoctrinated with Christianity in the residential
schools as part of colonization process, but managed to keep their own indigenous
spiritual identity with the ‘Creator’ of the universe including the land, water and
air. The Irish anthem has secular reference to father and children as defenders of
Ireland. The Irish anthem written before independence in 1922 is called Soldiers’
Song, and sounds like a song of resistance or a song of defiance against colonial rule
and subjugation.
The South African anthem was written three years after
independence and reflects strong religious beliefs in peace and hope for the future.
In the Appendix B are two socio-political poems are about the feeling of loss
of poetry by the Irish and Native Canadians, and one poem from South Africa
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
encouraging people to use poetry to resist colonization. The Irish social poetry,
“The High Poets are gone for the family of Cuchonnact O Dalaigh” written by
Daibhi O Bruadair in the seventeenth century after the colonization of Ireland,
reflects the anger and despair at the loss of tradition of bardic poetry and bardic
schools. Native Canada poetry “On Getting Published”, written by Dorris Seale in
1993, show the loss of the indigenous poetry through demands to change the words
and therefore the message by Euro-centric editors and publishers. The South
African social poetry “Your cattle are gone” by I. W. W. Citashe (1984) carries the
message of hope by resisting colonization in a non-violent way through the use of
pen and poetry.
In the Appendix C are three religious poems relating to the experiences of
dispossessed Irish, Native Canadian and South African women and men. The
anonymous Irish poetry “Blessed Mary” asks Mary for help and support. The
Native Canada poetry challenges the “patriarchal Jesus” to imagine living as one of
the dispossessed women. There is anger about Jesus’s ignorance or lack of concern
for dispossessed women. The South African poetry is about an imaginary religious
conversation between a devoted mother talking from her grave and her son who is
frustrated about the religious message of submissiveness to the colonizers. All three
poems are focused on the representation of women’s voice and experiences.
In the Appendix D are selected sections of three poems on social class, and on
the domination of the poor by the rich as experienced by dispossessed women and
men in Ireland, North America (Canada) and South Africa. The Irish poetry on
social class is “A Trick of this Treacherous World” by O’Conchuir. He lived in the
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
second half of the seventeenth century after the colonization of Ireland. Only two of
O’Conchuir poems are published. The Native Canada poetry on social class “My
Country” is by Buffy Sainte-Marie. It is a selection from her 1966 recording titled
“Little Wheel Spin and Spin”. The South African poetry on social class is “Inside a
Domestic Worker” written in 1980 by Boitumelo Mofokeng. It represents the voice
of an angry worker, yet her options for employment are more limited even than her
predecessors. This poem has two parts, an initial telephone call to a potential
employer and an interview in her home to emphasize the social class division in the
community.
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
REFERENCES.
Alwarez-Pereyre, Jacques (1984). The Poetry of Commitment in South Africa.
London, UK: Heinemann
Bergin, Osborn. (1970). Irish Bardic Poetry.
Ireland: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies
Bigelow, Bill., Peterson, Bob. (Eds.)(1998). Rethinking Columbus: the next 500
years. Milwaykee, Wisconsin: Rethinking Schools.
Coolahan, John. (1981). Irish Education: Its History and Structure.
Dublin, Ireland: Institute of Public Administration
DeShazer, Mary K. (1994). A Poetics of Resistance: Women writings in El Salvador,
South Africa and the United States.
Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press
Fife, Connie. (2003). The Colour of resistance: A contemporary collection of writing
by Aboriginal women. Toronto, Canada: Sister Vision
Ignatiev, Noel. (1996). How the Irish became White. New York: Routledge
Knott, Eleanor. (1960). Irish classical poetry commonly called bardic poetry.
Dublin, Ireland: Cultural Relations Committee of Ireland
Leonard, Keith D. (2005). Fettered Genius: the African American bardic poetry
from slavery to civil rights.Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press
McCone, Kim. (1990). Pagan Past and Christian Present in Early Irish Literature.
Kildare, Ireland: Au Sagar
O’Tauma, Sean. (1981). An Duanaire 1600-1900: Poems of the Dispossessed.
(Thomas Kinsella. Trans.)
Mountrath, Portlaoise, Ireland: The Dolmen Press
Simms, Katherine. (1998). Literacy and Irish Bards. In Pryce, Huw (Ed.) Literacy in
Medieval Celtic Societies Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University press.
Stevenson, Jane and Davidson, Peter. (2001). Early Modern
Women Poets (1520-1700). An Anthology. Oxford University Press
Williams, Gwyn. (1954). An introduction to Welsh poetry: From the beginning to
the sixteenth Century. Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press
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Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Appendix A: Selected Stanzas from the National Anthems of Ireland, Native Canada, and South Africa
Irish Bardic Poetry and the Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa (1600-2000).
National Anthem of Ireland
(2nd Stanza)
Native Canada Anthem
(4th stanza)
National Anthem of South Africa
(1st and 2nd stanza)
The Soldiers’ Song was written in 1907,
by Brendan Behan’s uncle Peader
Kearney. It was sung at the GPO during
the 1916 Easter Rising and at the
various internment camps. It became
the national anthem of Ireland in 1922.
An alternative anthem
of First Nations People in Canada
Written by Leonore Keeshig-Tobias
(Fife, 1993)
(Written in five languages in1997,
to represent the message of
reconciliation between
ethnic and racial groups.
The first two stanzas were written by a
Enoch Sontonga,
A Methodist school teacher in 1897))
We have always walked on the edge
Of your dreams, stalked
you as you made wild your way
through this great land,
generation after generation
And, O Canada, you have always been
Afraid of us, scared, because you know
You can never live without us
God bless Africa
May her glory be lifted high
Hear our petitions
God bless us, Your children
Soldiers’ Song
In valley green or towering crag,
Our fathers fought before us,
And conquered ‘neath the same old flag
That’s proudly floating o’er us.
We’re the children of a fighting race,
That never yet has known disgrace,
And as we march, the foe to face
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God we ask You to protect our nation
Intervene and end all conflicts
Protect us, protect our nation
Nation of South Africa, South Africa
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Appendix B: Selected sections from the socio-political poetry of Ireland, Native Canada, and South Africa
Irish Bardic Poetry and the Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa (1600-2000).
Irish socio-political poetry
(3rd stanza)
The High Poets are Gone
For the family of Cuchonnact O Dalaigh
By Daibhi O Bruadair (c.1625-1698)
After those poets,
for whom art
and knowledge were wealth,
alas to have lived this fate befall us:
their books in corners graying into
nothing
and their sons
without one syllable of their secret
treasure.
A Native Canada poetry
On Getting Published
by Doris Seale (Fife, 1993)
South African socio-political
poetry
By I. W. W. Citashe
(Alvare-Pereyre, 1984)
Knowing better
They took our words,
So carefully set down
In a certain way
One beside another –
We were intent to say
Exactly what we meant –
And rearranged them
To fit
Some concept of the mind
Some alien bent
From another place and time
We are at home
And not at home
Where even our words
May be used
Against us.
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Your cattle are gone, my country men!
Go rescue them! Go rescue them!
Leave the breechloader alone
And return to the pen.
Take paper and ink,
For that is your shield.
Your rights are going!
So pick up your pen.
Load it, load it with ink.
Sit on a chair.
Repair not to Hoho
But fire with your pen
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Appendix C: Selected sections from religious poetry of Ireland, Native Canada, and South Africa
Irish Bardic Poetry and the Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa (1600-2000).
Irish poetry on religion
Blessed Mary
By Anonymous (1600 plus)
Blessed Mary
Mother of god
Direct me always
Toward my good.
Rescue me
from every ill
Rescue me
both body and soul.
Rescue me
On land and sea
Rescue me
from the slab of pain
Native Canada poetry on religion
Jesus Christ
By Marcie Rendon (Fife, 1993)
Jesus Christ
Wasn’t born a woman
Menstruation
Would have kept him out of the
Temple at age 12
He would have been raped
Hitch-hiking from Bethlehem to
Jerusalem
His nursing children
Would have screamed
And starved
Without milk for
40 days and 40 nites
The loaves and fish
Would have been made
Into hotdish
To serve a few more nope
Jesus Christ
Wasn’t born a woman
He wouldn’t have had
Time to be crucified
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South African poetry on religion
Voice from the Dead
By O. M. Mtshali (1976)
Yes, Heaven is in your heart.
God is no picture
With a snow-white beard.
What!
Yes, God is that crippled beggar
Sprawling at the street-corner.
There is no hell burning
With sulphur and brimstone.
What!
Yes, Hell is
The hate flickering
In your eye.
Shiraz Ramji
swramji@sfu.ca
Appendix D: Selected sections from social class poetry of Ireland, Native Canada, and South Africa
Irish Bardic Poetry and the Poetry of the dispossessed women and men
in North America and South Africa (1600-2000).
Irish poetry on the domination of
the poor
Native Canada poetry on the
domination of the poor
South African poetry on the
domination of the poor
A Trick of this Treacherous World
By O Conchuir (1600 plus)
My country (1966)
By Buffy Sainte -Marie
From the song “Little wheel spin and
spin”
Inside a Domestic Worker (1980).
By Boitumelo Mofokeng
A trick of the treacherous world
puts the rich above the reproach.
If you’re poor you have no sense
And Justice goes undone.
I have had these thesis proved.
When things were all set fair
I’d family and friends in plenty.
Now I’m poor they keep their distance.
If I see them they don’t see me.
If they see me they still don’t see me.
They hold, with my fortune gone,
though I’m there it isn’t me.
Any summer day, from sunrise
(Let everyone know why)
If I don’t see my shadow, or a bird’s
I’ll see no shadow at all.
Now that the long houses
Reap superstition
You’ve have forced us to send
Our toddlers away
To your schools, where they’re taught
To despise their traditions
Forbid their languages,
Temper their say
That America’s history
Really began
when Columbus set sail
Out of Europe and stressed
That the nation of leeches
That conquered this land
Are the biggest and bravest
And boldest and best
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Good Morning Madam
I am responding to
Your advert in today’s Newspaper.
I would like to come in for an interview.
Thank you, Madam, I’ll be there.
Remember my name is Sophie.
I can do general household cleaning
Washing and ironing
Cooking and baking
Babysitting
Telephone answering
I can read and write
I am learning to drive
My hobbies include loving pets
Is there anything else
You would like to know?