2012 Cambridge Business & Economics Conference
ISBN : 9780974211428
2012 Cambridge Business and Economics Conference (CBEC)
June 27-28, 2012
Cambridge University, UK
Norhalimah Idris1, Tan Sui Hong1,2 and Nur Naha Abu Mansor1
1
Faculty of Management and Human Resource Development,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
2
Corresponding author
Email: helenfrs_fhba@yahoo.com.sg
Telephone: +6012-7966035
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COMPETENCE ACQUISITION THROUGH THE LENS OF WOMEN MANAGERS’
EXPERIENCES
ABSTRACT
Management scholars have long argued that managers are neither born nor graduated from
management schools. Becoming a manager is a gradual process where an ongoing
transformation of identity takes place within work environment. This implies that managerial
competence acquisition is relational, situational and social. Managers are conceptualized as
social learners and they learn mostly from experiences at the workplace. However, the disparity
in the percentage of senior managers at the top level between male and female and the increased
interest for gender diversity underscores the initiatives to understand the process of women
managers’ competence acquisition. This paper presents the exploratory pilot findings which
focused on the first three women managers’ workplace learning experiences in the context of
competence acquisition. Through qualitative research design, they were purposely selected from
three sectors in Malaysia i.e. the public sectors, private corporations and government-linked
corporations (GLCs). The research method used were in-depth interviews followed by solicited
research diary writings. This paper highlights findings from three pilot interviews which applied
also solicited diary as a research method to provide access into women’s experiences which tend
to be embedded within the complex social and cultural realities. The pilot findings suggested that
complex interaction of personal, organizational and societal contexts are subtle yet powerful in
shaping the experiences of Malaysian women in management. Against the growing need for
gender diversity at the top management and the dominant western concept of competence, this
study consider issues of relevance to competence acquisition for women managers situated
within the Asian cultural settings.
Key words: Women managers; Gender; Competence acquisition; Workplace learning;
Qualitative research
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1.
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INTRODUCTION
Managers’ pivotal role in the organizations is to build their organizations core
competitive advantage by mobilizing all the resources available, monitoring performances and
shaping strategies. Thus it is natural that managers are considered as one of organizations most
valuable assets (Sheehan, 2012). The notion that managers are neither born nor produced in the
graduate management schools have been a prevailing view in the management literature led by
prominent author such as Mintzberg (see Mintzberg, 2004). On this basis, the importance of
building managerial competencies has been the subject of interest in the field of management
(see the comprehensive review in Boyatzis, 2008, 2009; Winterton, 2009 and Garavan et al.,
2012). Some of the authors refer competence in management development as talent development
(Boyatzis, 2009; Garavan et al., 2012). Typically the emphasis is on the development of
managers and leaders who are the key organizational talent group (McClelland, 1973; Boyatzis,
1982; Spencer and Spencer, 1993).
According to the behavioral approach to emotional, cognitive and social intelligence
competencies, competence falls within the domain of human talent that can be developed
(Boyatzis, 2009). In mapping talent development, Garavan et al. (2012) state that talent
development involves the processes of developing technical or generic competencies or both
(ibid., p. 7). Technical competencies are competencies that managers develop at the initial stage
while generic competencies are typically developed by managers beyond the initial stages, often
taking place in the work setting (ibid., p. 8). The indications are therefore, that the process of
developing competencies is also part of the talent development which falls under the wider scope
of talent management strategy. As the development of generic managerial competencies mostly
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occurs at the workplace, the greater understanding on the influence of contextual factors within
the personal, organizational and societal realities is highly relevant (Omar and Davidson, 2001,
2004). What are the issues surrounding the managers’ competence acquisition? Do all managers
experience generic set of challenges in their competence development? The disparity between
men and women managers at the upper level and the heightened interest for gender diversity
underscores the initiatives to understand the process of women managers’ competence
acquisition in particular.
Across the world, the under-presentation of women in senior management or executives
roles and on corporate boards has long sparked debates and interests among the gender and
management scholars (see Oakley, 2000; Davidson and Burke, 2004; Wood and Newton, 2006;
Schein, 2007; Ismail and Ibrahim, 2008; Broadbridge and Hearn, 2008; Rowley and Yukongdi,
2009; Vinnicombe and Singh, 2011; Vanderbroeck, 2010; Swan, 2011; Lewis and Simpson,
2011; Brady et al., 2011; LaPierre and Zimmerman, 2012). The 2012 Word Development Report
(WDR 2012) on Gender Equity and Development recently shows some encouraging sign that
gender gap have shrunk in many aspects. However, the WDR 2012 highlights the existence of
gender disparities in the areas of policy decision making as well as in the upper echelons. Gender
disparities have been considered as the persistent reality in the 21st century as reflected in many
recent international surveys (see McKinsey and Company, 2010; Institute of Leadership and
Management (ILM), 2010; Governance Metrics International (GMI), 2011; Grant Thornton
International Business Report, 2011). The situations in Asia are of no difference from those in
Europe or USA. Most of the Asian countries recorded less than 10 percent of the board seats held
by women (GMI, 2011): Thailand (8.7 percent), China (8.5 percent), Singapore (7.3 percent),
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Malaysia (6.3 percent), Taiwan (6.1 percent), India (5.3 percent), Indonesia (4.5 percent) and
finally Japan with less than 1 percent (0.9 percent).
In Malaysia, the data compiled by the Gender Gap Index 2010 indicates that the
percentage of women in legislation, senior officials and managers in Malaysia has increased to
24 per cent in 2010 after a consistent showing at 23 per cent since 2003. The aspiration of
Malaysia to achieve the ultimate aim of becoming a fully developed country by the year 2020 is
cemented in Vision 2020. The country is currently executing the Tenth Malaysian Plan alongside
other economic plans such as the New Economic Model (NEM) that outlines strategic reform
initiatives to double Malaysia’s income per capita by year 2020.
One
single
most
critical
factor that will see Malaysia’s transition toward a fully developed economy is its human
resources.
Malaysia shall need a highly competent workforce comprising of world-class talents,
male and female, in order to implement all the government’s plans and policies. According to the
Malaysia Population and Housing Census 2010, the total population currently stands at 27.6
million with female population accounting for 48.8 percent of the total population. The women
labor force participation rate (LFPR) has increased from 35.6 percent in 2000 to 47.6 percent in
2011. As for qualified women with tertiary education, the ratio of female to male university
graduates stands at 60:40. In cognizant of the urgent need to harness the underutilized women
talent, Malaysia has announced the recent drive to have 30 percent of women at the decisionmaking levels in public sector, private sector and government-linked corporations (GLCs, i.e. the
public and private partnerships). The government prescribes a formal development education
program for women with high potentials to prepare them for ascendency to the upper
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management level. However, the point of contention here is that managers are social learners and
they learn best at the workplace (see Mintzberg, 2004; Watkins and Marsick, 1992; Hill, 2004;
Eraut, 2007; Boyatzis, 2008, 2009). In addition, the dominance of the western concept in the
management development literature also calls for some deliberation as one-size-fits-all argument
is nothing short of naive universalism (see Hofstede, 2007). Thus, against the growing need for
gender diversity in the upper management level and the understanding of competence acquisition
of women managers within the East Asian settings, this study is initiated.
This paper is organized into seven major sections. The first introductory section
discusses the background of the problem followed by the problem statement in the second
section. The third section reviews the relevant literature in the area of competence, theory of
learning, contextual factors in a form of gender role, organizational and societal realities. The
next two sections discuss the research method and exploratory pilot multiple-case study findings
while section six attends to the discussion. Section seven ends with the conclusion.
2.
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The concept of competence has become pervasive in the management literature. Yet, the
concept remains quite elusive as there is hardly any consensus on the conceptualization of
competence. Debates are sparked by the conceptual and terminological differences advocated by
the various management scholars predominantly from the west. However, there is an
unquestionable consensus on the importance and the relevance of competence to the performance
of individuals and organizations (Boyatzis, 2008, 2009; Winterton, 2009). The literature reveals
that the focus of most of the competence framework seems to be directed towards the
identification and validation of competencies. The investigation into the complex process of
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competence acquisition has been largely ignored in favor of the faster and less complicated
process of identifying and validating competencies against the predefined criteria often provided
by the panel of experts.
The reason for the theoretical shortcomings in understanding women’s lack of
progression into upper management level is due to the lack of rigor in researching the complex
interdependencies of these contexts (Omar and Davidson, 2001, p. 53). The interactions of the
contextual factors such as gender role, organizational structure and the society which one lives
in, invariably and intrinsically shape the individual’s multi-facet experiences (ibid., 2001).
Rowley and Yukongdi (2009) found that empirical works on women managers within the non
Western context are lacking especially in East Asian countries because traditionally women are
not expected to assume leadership or management roles. In addition, when they do assume such
roles, they experience prejudices in their career advancement.
Therefore, there is a need to explore the issues relating to the process of competence
acquisition by drawing on the experiences of women managers who are embedded within the
Malaysian work context. This research seeks to address the following questions: What are the
issues associated with women managers in relation to the process of acquiring managerial
competence at work? To what extent do women managers understand about workplace learning?
What are the issues involved from their viewpoints? How are women managers’ workplace
learning supported at the workplace? In what ways workplace learning environment can be
improved?
3.
LITERATURE REVIEW
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The literature review will discuss the concept of competence and recent development in
this area. Then the discussion continues with theories surrounding learning with special focus on
learning at the workplace. Finally, this section then elaborates the influence of contextual factors
in shaping women managers’ experiences.
3.1
The Concept of Competence
One of the earliest dissenting voices which were critical of the prevailing tendency to
associate cognitive intelligence with outstanding job performance came from White (1959). In
his view, individual’s effectiveness can be predicted from his or her interaction with the
environment. But it was not until 1973 that David McClelland introduced the concept of “testing
for competence” (McClelland, 1973) when it was clear to him that the context-free testing for
aptitude could not predict effective job performance and was also systematically being biased
against minorities and women. This concept then becomes the new “critical differentiator of
performance” (Boyatzis, 2008, p.5).
Conceptual difference
There have been some competing definitions of the competence concept and also the
terminology used. The difference in the conceptualization of competence has been attributed to
the context and perspective surrounding the previous work of scholars in this area (Garavan and
McGuire, 2001). The three distinct perspectives which dominated the literature are the individual
competencies, organizational competencies and competency as a mode of discourse (p.147).
Terminological difference
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The existence of the terminological differences goes beyond the linguistic-divide
argument (Winterton, 2009, p. 684). According to Garavan and McGuire (2001), there are
multiple meanings carried by those words which can be attributed to the different perspectives
and approaches led mainly by the American and the British scholars. For the purpose of this
study, the explanation provided by Tate (1995) and Winterton (2009) are used to explain the
terminological difference in the following Table 1.
Table 1 Terminological differences
Singular
Plural
competent
competent
(demonstrates)
(demonstrates)
competence
competences
(has) competency
(have) competencies
Used as an adjective
Used as a noun to denote what a person needs to know
and be able to do to perform the required task.
Used as a noun to denote characteristics associated with
superior job performance.
3.2
The Approaches to Understanding Competence
The US Approach
The American conceptualization of competence generally subscribes toward a workeroriented approach. In the US, competence has been conceptualized as the abilities possessed by
the individuals, typically knowledge, skills and personal traits. Therefore, the US approach
focuses heavily on behaviors. Competency is defined as “an underlying characteristics of a
person that it can be the aspect of motive, trait, aspect of one’s self-image or social role, or a
body of knowledge which he or she uses” (Boyatzis, 1982, p. 21) and superior managers
regardless of their ranks do share a general profile of competencies (Spencer and Spencer, 1993,
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p.9). Authors like Sandberg (2000) and Garavan and McGuire (2001) criticize such contextindependent approach as it produces an overly general and abstract list of competencies that has
little value in providing basis for managerial competence development. The predominant
rationalistic and positivist approach used in the US first predefine the performance criteria and
later used to validate the data from the behavioral event interview. In this way, according to
Holms (1995), quoted by Garavan and McGuire (2001), the competency models reflect
everything “developmental humanism is not” as individuals may be forced to redefine their
characteristics in order to be perceived competent. In addition, the assumption that all managers
possess generic list of competencies is characteristically gendered.
The UK Approach
On the other hand, the UK approach to competence is largely work-oriented (Stuart and
Lindsay, 1997) as it focuses on the meeting of the required performance stipulated by the job
scope (Management Charter Initiative, 1990). According to the Training Commission (as cited in
Mitchell and Boak, 2009, p. 702), competence is defined as the ability to perform the tasks
within one’s occupation and meet the minimum level of requirement expected within
employment. The main criticisms are the model’s neglect of knowledge and cognitive processes.
This results in the lack of dynamism which leads to its inability to focus on the development of
managerial competences in the fast changing business environment. There is also the risk that the
organizations which adopt the UK approach will have to provide training for every identified job
(Elkin, 1990).
The Holistic Approach
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Notwithstanding the above shortcomings of the US and UK approaches, Cheetham and
Chivers (1996b, 2005) acknowledged the usefulness of both in the articulation of their holistic
approach towards the professional competence model called the Revised Model. They argued
that the different approaches were actually the “different facets of the same gemstone”. These
“facets” include personal competence, functional competence, technical-rational approach,
reflective practitioner (Schön, 1983), knowledge or cognitive competence, ethical competence
and meta-competencies. However, it is still questionable whether the model can represent a wide
range of professions or whether the description of the model is representative of any one
profession (Idris, 2008). Most importantly, the aspect of competence acquisition and the
contextual factors that may play significant influence on the acquisition process are not duly
addressed by this model.
3.3
Recent Trends in Competency-based Research
Two special issues from the Journal of Management Development (JMD) that dedicated
to “updating of our understanding” (Boyatzis, 2008, p. 5) of the concept of competence with
Boyatzis himself at the helm shall be used as the point of reference.
The first issue (Vol. 27, No. 1, 2008) consisted of eight original works from the US are
consistent in their findings in relation to the importance of the emotional, cognitive and social
intelligence competencies as predictors of outstanding performance. The main thrust of the
argument here is that these competencies can be developed in adulthood via workplace learning
(Dreyfus, 2008) or graduate management program (Boyatzis and Saatcioglu, 2008; Leonard,
2008; Wheeler, 2008 and Rhee, 2008). The influence of contextual factors on competence
development has also been considered in some cases: gender (Hopkins and Bilimoria, 2008),
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organizational environment and local social contexts (Williams, 2008; Koman and Wolff, 2008;
Dreyfus, 2008 and Wheeler, 2008).
The second issue (Vol. 28, No. 9) consisted of European collection of original studies
from multicultural background: knowledge workers in European Union firms (Ryan, Emmerling
and Spencer, 2009), managers and leaders from a large Italian company and cooperatives
(Boyatzis and Ratti, 2009), managers and non-managers from medium-sized Spanish
organizations (Ramo, Saris and Boyatzis, 2009) and the officers and commanders in the British
Royal Navy (Young and Dulewicz, 2009).
The evidence from these two special issues seems to indicate that the recent competencybased approaches in the field of management are more context-dependent. It is worth noting that
more researchers adopt multi-method approach in the data collection especially in the US. This
can be taken as a sign of early departure from the traditional rationalistic approaches that
Sandberg (2000) is critical about. However, the selected papers only represent the empirical
research on the American, British and European shores. The focus of these papers is to identify
competencies that distinguish outstanding performers from the average ones, to validate the
predictive ability of these competencies in various occupations and finally to show that
competencies can be developed in adulthood via formal and informal learning. The main
problem with formal learning especially in the graduate management program is the retention of
knowledge and skills gained which at best, lasted for half a year (Boyatzis, 2008). Thus the most
appropriate venue for managerial competencies development is the workplace because learning
then will be continuous and relevant to the job (Marsick and Watkin, 1990; Eraut, 2007).
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From the perspective of competence development, these questions are left unattended:
How does one acquire and develop managerial competencies? Is the act of acquiring
distinctively different from developing? In addition, even the western perspective has been
largely silent on the role of gender in the recent development in this area. The “unstated
assumption” (McGregor and Tweed, 2001) that management skills are generic and universal and
that they are “not influenced by gender considerations” is still prevalent within the field of
management.
3.4
The Process of Competence Acquisition
The dominant view emphasizes on the developmental aspects of the competencies
(Sandberg, 2000; Boyatzis, 2008, 2009; Pruis, 2011; Garavan et al., 2012) but little is said about
competencies acquisition. Is there any distinction between acquire and develop? According to
the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the definitions are as follow:

Acquire: To come to have as a new or added characteristic, trait or ability (as by
sustained effort or natural selection).

Develop: To expand by a process of growth; to acquire gradually.
For the purpose of this study, both terms are taken to convey the same meaning and therefore
may be used interchangeably throughout this paper. Williams (2003), cited by Boyatzis (2008)
observed that in the studies of affective neuroscience and genetic expression, it is proposed that
one’s experiences have the capacity to overtake genetic dispositions in determining the
biological basis of behavior once in adulthood. Implicitly the study implied that competencies
can be acquired via experiential learning. The next section will deal with the theories
surrounding managers learning activities.
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3.5
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The Theories Surrounding Learning
Managers are conceptualized as social learners (Hill, 2004) and their learning often take
place within work context (Hill, 1992; Eraut, 2007; Cheetham and Chivers, 2005; Idris, 2008;
Chivers, 2011). The conceptualization of informal learning at the workplace gained much
interest with researchers attempting to approach the topic from different perspectives. There are
arguments for a more employee-oriented approach. Billet (1993a) and Mansfield (1990)
examined the tasks associated with the acquisition of knowledge that represent the outcomes
whereas Cunningham (1998) discussed the social-interaction between co-workers. Apart from
that, some advocate for more practitioner-oriented. Levy (1987) focused on the structure and
processes that provide linkage for knowledge and skill acquisition to the work role. Smith (2003)
pointed out that these different conceptualizations are complementing each other in providing
insight into the big picture of informal learning at the workplace.
Despite the plethora of works done on informal learning at workplace, there is little
appreciation that learning does take place at work (Cheetham and Chivers, 2005). There is also
lack of work that seeks to identify or enhance informal learning at workplace (Chivers, 2011).
And certainly none had been involved in studying how women managers learn at their workplace
in Malaysia. The concept of informal learning has been developed from the empirically tested
comprehensive theories involving the informal and incidental learning by Marsick and Watkins
(1990, 1997) and Watkins and Marsick (1992). Their definition of the concept is in contrast to
the classroom-based learning which tends to be very structured and well planned. However, the
terms informal learning does cover both the unstructured as well as the structured type of
learning (Watkins and Marsick, 1992). Cheetham and Chivers (2001) had identified several
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informal learning strategies which include, among others, self-directed learning, social learning,
networking, coaching as well as mentoring.
The social learning theory stemmed from the behavioral aspect of human nature which
contends that individual tend to model his or her behavior based on the behavior of others that
produce the valued outcomes (Bandura, 1977). As the social learning theory deals with the
reciprocal relationship of behavioral, cognitive and environmental factors, it can be said to be
closely related to the work of Lave in situated learning theory and that of Vygotsky in social
development theory. In the study of children language learning, Vygotsky (1978) argued that
social interaction played a central role in developing cognitive development. In the social
engaging behavior, the closer the adults are to the children, the higher the potential is for the
children to develop their cognitive development. The same concept can be applied to broader
situations especially involving informal learning at the workplace where colleagues help each
other through collaboration, coaching or mentoring. The learning process is facilitated by the
ongoing process of socialization.
Situated learning theory has a pedigree going back to the work of Bandura in social
learning. As in social learning theory, social interaction is a critical component of the learning
process which in general involves knowledge acquisition as much as social participation, often
unintentionally rather than deliberate.
An analysis based on an empirical study on situated learning was conducted by Lave and
Wenger (1991) in five settings: Yucatec midwives, Vai and Gola native tailors, US navy
quartermasters, meat cutters and alcoholics from Alcoholic Anonymous. Their study showed that
the beginners who were initially on the periphery of the community moved towards the center of
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the community of practitioners as their competences increased. The learner’s progression are
marked by an increased in the level of active participation in the socio-cultural practice. Thus,
the progression of the learners within that particular community must make sense to the
community as a whole. Extended thinking on context can be found in the learner-network theory
(Poell et al., 2000). Here learning is influence by the individuals and their interactions which is
mediated by the negotiation of power within the vertical, horizontal, external and liberal
dimensions. Individuals are more proactive as well as independent in devising their own learning
strategies to aid their performances and personal agendas (Marsick et al., 2008).
The researcher believes that the women managers gradually acquire their knowledge and
skills in the context of daily activities in the same manner. A transformation of identity takes
place slowly beginning with the novice acting as a “specialist and doer”. He or she is very taskoriented, performs most of the task directly and relatively independent (Hill, 2004). Hill (2004)
argues that as he or she becomes the manager, that person is moving towards the center of the
community and finally becomes the expert, the “generalist” and the “agenda-setter”. Becoming
a manager here means also that the person has become a “network builder” (ibid., 2004). Hence,
the person, the learning and the community are woven together interdependently. As Lave and
Wenger (1999) put it, the process of learning is not an individual process as what previous
authors such as Piaget (1926) had conceptualized.
3.6
Contextual Factors: Gender, Organisational and Societal Realities
Gender is a product of socio-cultural construction (see Oakley, 1972; Butler, 1990). The
construction of differences revolves around male-female dichotomy can be found in many
aspects of practices and processes in life. So much so, it becomes the ‘cultural arrangement’ well
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accepted and entrenched within the society (Butler, 1990). This arrangement eventually dictates
the gender roles, which in turn, influence individuals to behave themselves and make conscious
choices according to the prescribed norms (Connel, 2002). It is widely known as gender
stereotyping which assign individual’s ‘membership’ into a particular group based on malefemale attributes and psychological traits (Davidson and Cooper, 1993).
The term “management” has been largely associated with men and masculinity. Bartram
(2005) illustrated this point by taking an example from Mintzberg’s work in 1975 where “a
manager” had been systematically referred to as a “he” in his book (Mintzberg, 1975). This
prompted scholars like Victoria Schein to come up with the famous quote, “think manager-think
male” (Schein, 1973). As Batram (2005) put it, “women did not figure” in the universally
accepted management framework. Despite the gendered nature of management, there is still a
dearth of research on management and organization that takes gender issue into account, or if
any, they are “simple and crude” (Broadbridge and Hearn, 2008, p. S38).
In a study on male and female managers in New Zealand, McGregor and Tweed (2001)
explored gender and managerial competence among male and female owners/managers of
manufacturing enterprises in New Zealand. Their findings show that the predominantly
masculine theorizing in the field of management as highlighted by Schein (1973) has stood the
test of time. Using the typology of predefined 54 managerial competencies, a quantitative survey
was conducted. The result showed that both male and female managers’ perception of their
managerial competencies produced a generic set. One explanation offered by the authors was the
possibility that the generic set of competencies were driven by the universality of the managerial
functions where in manufacturing sectors the male-as-norm model is predominant (McGregor
and Tweed, 2001, p. 285). Then again, the predefined typology brings to mind the observation
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that managers may redefine or reinterpret themselves in order to fit into the competent category.
Given that the generic set of competencies is predefined by the prevailing traditional male
structure, it simply goes to show that Schein’s (1973) “think manager–think male” applies to the
process of identification and validation of managerial competencies. Hence, can it be helped that
managerial competencies are generic?
Returning to the two JMD’s special issues on competencies in the 21st century, there is
only one (out of thirteen!) empirical work which explores the influence of gender in the
demonstration of emotional and social intelligence competencies. The work of Hopkins and
Bilimoria (2008) seek to examine firstly whether gender influence the demonstration of
emotional and social intelligence competencies and secondly, whether gender moderate the
relationship between these competencies and success. Their findings showed that there is no
significant difference in the competencies demonstrated by both genders (p. 27) but interestingly,
they found that gender moderates the relationship between the demonstration of competencies
and success. Even though both sexes demonstrated higher level of competencies, only male
managers were rated to be more successful. In short, gender does matter and gender stereotyping
permeates the organizational structure. The authors finally conceded with other previous findings
(Eagly et al., 1995; Powel et al., 2002) that women in leadership and management roles had been
systematically devalued by the organizational practices.
Do we need gender research then? The answer is an affirmative ‘yes’. McGregor (2010)
justifies the need based on the universality of women’s lack of presentation especially in top
management and policy-making decisions. She posits that the participation of women in top
management is reflective of how women are treated in their respective countries. Marginalization
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in economic spheres is just a tip of the marginalization iceberg. It is her view that if women in
management are marginalized in the public or private sectors, they are marginalized in every
respect elsewhere (p. 272).
However, single perspective has been proven inadequate to enrich our understanding of
women in management because women’s experiences are multi-faceted, influenced and
characterized by complex interdependencies (Omar and Davidson, 2001). For instance, gendercentered perspective has never been able to explain for the pervasiveness of glass ceiling
phenomenon on its own. According to Fagenson (1993), the structural perspective where the
organizational culture and characteristics shape behaviors in the organizations and the social
system perspective in which person and organization are embedded must be taken into account
when studying women in management. Therefore, Fagenson’s (1993) Gender-OrganisationSystem (GOS) framework which has been summarized in Omar and Davidson (2004) is believed
to be able to capture the experiences of women in management as it incorporates the personal,
organizational and societal context. The GOS framework suggests that one’s experiences are not
only shaped by personal factors and work-family commitment, but also by the organizational
structure and the local social context he or she is embedded in. In addition, these factors interact
and change in response to the changes in the environment in varied paces. Parker and Fagenson
(1994) used this rationale to explain for the different level of progress for women in management
around the world.
3.7
Proposed Conceptual Framework
The initial conceptual framework for this study shall rely heavily on the following assumptions:
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1) Competency is an underlying characteristic of a person. Some elements are
identifiable as they are manifested through the person’s behaviors but some are
deeply rooted and internal to the individual hence drawing the analogy of the iceberg
structure. In most cases, these invisible characteristics are more significant as to one’s
journey towards the upper management level.
2) Competence acquisition and development is continuous, gradual and non-linear in
nature.
3) Women managers’ lives are embedded within the family, organizational and societal
context.
4) Self-belief, self esteem and sense of purpose and destiny are important to ensure the
success and continuity of women’s competence development.
4.
RESEARCH METHOD
4.1
The Research Paradigm
The purpose of the study is to gain in-depth understanding on women managers’
competence acquisition from different sectors in Malaysia. Therefore, under the interpretive
paradigm, this research shall employ multiple-case study strategy (Yin, 2003) and constructivist
Grounded Theory (GT) approach (Strauss and Corbin, 1998; Charmaz, 2006). The interpretive
tradition has a different take on understanding competence. The emphasis is not on the externally
framed competence repertoires predominantly found in the positivist paradigm (Garavan and
McGuire, 2001). Instead, the focus is on the experience of working lives and how that
experiences relate to competence. In this way, intimate connection with complex realities can be
fostered and the participants voices are privileged (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Above all, the
main interest is in the discovery of the emerging knowledge rather than confirming the
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prescribed or predefined criteria. Therefore, based on this rationale, the researcher believes that
quantitative method will be unlikely to elicit the data to address the research questions that guide
this study (see Section 2).
Within the framework of qualitative method, the interpretive paradigm is chosen, and to a
certain degree, the critical paradigm too. While the interpretive paradigm focuses on how people
construct social meaning, the importance of individuals’ background and origin are not duly
emphasized (Fossey et al., 2002). The critical approach highlights the importance of examining
historical, social, cultural and political context in understanding what shape context and
experiences. Feminist inquiry is one approach based on the critical perspective. According to
Smart (2009), the feminist inquiry seeks to present the intricate layers of social and cultural
realities in researching women’s lives. Thus, the feminist perspective shall guide this inquiry.
4.2
Study Cohorts
The population shall be drawn from the public sectors, government-linked corporations
(GLCs), and corporate sectors in Malaysia. The potential respondents are women managers at all
level (Junior Managers, Middle/Senior Managers and Senior Managers) from these institutions
especially those with experiences in various areas such as marketing or operations as they are
likely to occupy the talent pipeline gearing towards top positions (Oakley, 2000). The purposive
sampling via snowballing technique is selected because it narrows the sample down only to those
are knowledgeable and can assist the researcher in providing insights to the phenomenon (Patton,
1990).
4.3
Research Tools
4.3.1 In-depth Interviews
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An unstructured interview is often used at the preliminary stage of an exploratory pilot
study as the information obtained will provide insights or hints for the line of questioning that
can be used in the next interviews (Gillham, 2005). In view of the fact that the researched
respondents are very busy individuals, a semi-structured face-to-face interview technique will be
used in order to make full use of the time made available for the meeting (Yusof, 2005; Chivers,
2011). Bearing in mind that the aim is to explore the unknown phenomena which is internally
framed by these women, the researcher will strive to accommodate a more open-ended line of
questioning to ensure openness but at the same time maintain focus so as to be precise.
4.3.2 Solicited Research Diaries
The usage of diary as a source of data in sociological research has been ‘relatively
neglected’ (Elliot, 1997) and ‘underused’ (Kenten, 2010) since it is more commonly used in
social history, historical anthropology and developmental psychology. Solicited diaries have
been widely used as a method to investigate various types of experiences in qualitative
sociological research as indicated by the following list of empirical studies involving research
diaries in the span of more than thirty years (refer Table 2). The word ‘solicited’ is used to
indicate that these diaries are ‘produced specifically at the researcher’s request’ (Bell, 1998).
Table 2 Comparison of empirical studies which used research diaries within sociological
research.
No Authors
Area of study
Method (Stand alone or Combined)
1
Zimmerman and
Wieder, 1977
Counter culture
Structured solicited diaries and diary-interview
2
Coxon, 1988
Health: Sexual behavior of
gays
Solicited diaries
3
Elliot, 1997
Health: Patients’ help-
In-depth interview, diary-interview and
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seeking behaviour
solicited diaries
4
Massey et al,
2002
Technological learning in
agriculture
Forum, interviews, survey and solicited diaries
5
Meth, 2003
Women’s fear and
experience of violence
Survey, focus group interviews and solicited
diaries using feminist perspective.
6
Milligan et al,
2005
Health and well-being
amongst elder people
Survey, focus group interviews, semistructured interviews and solicited diaries using
Grounded Theory approach.
7
Valimaki et al,
2007
Experiences of care-givers
Unstructured diaries
8
Kenten, 2010
Sexual behavior of sexual
minorities
Semi-structured in-depth interview, solicited
diaries and diary-interviews using Grounded
Theory approach.
The less structured or open solicited diaries are able to capture rich qualitative data as
they can accommodate the diarists’ priorities and provide means of understanding ‘taken for
granted’ issues (Elliot, 1997) as they are written from the diarists’ viewpoint (Kenten, 2010).
Elliot (1997) highlights other advantages of solicited diaries within sociological research as the
followings; they provide means of understanding what is ‘taken for granted’ by the informants
and researchers alike, facilitate ‘record’ and ‘reflection’ on the experience, accommodate
different responses mode, and capture informants’ priorities. Apart from that, the diaries provide
primary data source and also complement other data (Meth, 2003; Lewis et al, 2005 and Kenten,
2010) which is highly desirable in overcoming ‘intrinsic bias that comes from single-methods,
single observer, and single-theory studies’ (Denzin, 1970). However, Meth (2003) points out that
there are three possible drawbacks in the usage of solicited diaries as a methodological tool
based on her research project carried out in Durban, South Africa. Firstly, the literacy skill of the
participants, secondly, the possibility that the entries made by the participants are selective thus
raise issues about truthfulness of the content and finally, the amount of effort and time needed
for diary keeping.
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It is in the view of the researcher that the ability of the open and loosely structured
research diary format will be compatible with the overall research design that is guided by the
feminist principles. As for the drawbacks, there is no anticipated problem with regards to literacy
skill as the respondents in this study are highly qualified women. As far as the issue of
truthfulness is concern, the researcher will apply triangulation of the data during which the data
from the diaries and interviews shall be continuously compared during the analysis process.
4.4
Research Design and Procedure
Figure 1 Research Design Overview
RESEARCH DESIGN AND LITERATURE

Literature Search and Review

Research Design

Conceptual Framework

Defense of the Research Proposal
EXPLORATORY PILOT STUDY: Modus Operandi
Stage 1:
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DESIGN
&
PILOT STUDY

Access and Consent Strategy

Design Interview Protocol and Technique

Design Solicited Research Diary Protocol

Pilot In-depth Interviews
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Stage 2:
FIELDWORK
5.
EXPLORATORY PILOT MULTIPLE-CASE STUDY
The research operational framework for the pilot study is consisting of four main activities:
preparation of pilot study design, data collection, data analysis and findings. This is described in
Table 3.
Table 3 Research Operational Framework
1
2
The Exploratory Pilot Multiple-Case Study (Nov 2011-Jan 2012)
Objectives
Methods/Tools Used
 To determine information
needed for the study
 To generate interview
questions
Pilot Data Collection
 To determine the site for
 Open-ended In-depth
multiple-case study (public
Interviews
sector, private sector and
 Purposive sampling
GLC)
 Field notes
 To collect pilot data
 Audio Recorder
 To generate interview
questions
Activities
Design
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3
Pilot Data Analysis
4
Pilot Findings
5.1
Modus Operandi
 To analyze pilot interview
transcripts for competence
and workplace learning
 To amend the interview
technique and questions
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 Transcribing
 Content Analysis
5.1.1 Pilot Interviews
Face to face in-depth interviews were conducted in this pilot study. The first challenge to
overcome is to gain access and consent to interview women in top management who are highly
busy individuals. Through personal contacts, three women managers representing the private
sector, public sector and GLC each were approached for the pilot interviews. The optimum use
of link through personal contacts can be of great advantage to one’s research especially in
researching the ‘powerful’ whom Fitz and Halpin (1994) identified as those occupying the
‘administrative and political’ posts such as women in upper management. Access was readily
granted by the participants. It is important to note here that often the ‘powerful’ respondents are
also the gatekeepers themselves. After obtaining consent, e-mails were immediately sent out
explaining the purpose of the study, length of the interviews, condition of anonymity and topics
of discussion. The interviews were scheduled according to the participants’ availability but
spaced out in order to give the researcher sufficient time to reflect on each conduct of the
interview. The final thing to do before the actual day of the interview was to reconfirm with the
participants or their secretaries the date, time and place of meeting.
Before the interview began, a brief personal introduction was made followed by the
briefing of the interview protocol. Letters of consent to participate in the study were signed by
the researcher and the participant, each keeping one copy at the end of the interview. The first
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and second interviews were done at their offices whilst the third interview took place at one of
the local restaurant. The interviews lasted between one to two hours.
5.1.2 Pilot Solicited Research Diaries
At the end of these interviews, the participants were briefed on the solicited research
diaries protocol. A self-addressed (researcher’s) prepaid national courier package was given to
each of them so that they could return the diaries after two weeks interval.
The guideline to the research diary writing was prepared and placed on the first page of
the diary. Prompts were included so as to assist the participants to focus on providing the
information needed by the research. Apart from that, the participants were also invited to jot
down their reflection on events which they deemed relevant to their competence acquisition
process.
5.1.3 The Findings
5.1.3.1 Participant Demographics
Below demographic information was obtained prior to the interview via personal
contacts. The information was then verified with the participants during the interviews.
Table 4 Participant demographics
Participant
(by pseudonym)
R001
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Designation/
Sector
Status/
Children
Age
Ethnicity
Education
General
Manager/
Married/
4
40-44
Malay
Bachelor degree
Professional
Years of
Working
17 years
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R002
R003
Private
sector
Deputy Head
of Section/
GLC
Principal
Director/
Public sector
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children
Married/
2
children
Married/
1 child
Qualification
35-39
Malay
35-39
Malay
Diploma
Bachelor Degree
MBA
Bachelor Degree
MBA
13 years
12 years
5.1.3.2 Pilot Interviews and Analysis
The in-depth interviews were conducted at various places as the participants came from
different sectors. Table 5 shows the brief details of the interviews.
Table 5 Details of the Pilot Interviews
Participant
Length of
Interview
2 hours 18
minutes
Interviewer
R002
1 hour 9
minutes
The Researcher
R003
1 hour 12
minutes
The Researcher
(by pseudonym)
R001
1. The Researcher
2. Researcher’s
supervisor
Location of
Interview
In a meeting room
inside the
organization’s
building
In a conference
room inside the
organization’s
building
In a local
restaurant in town
area
Recording
Audio recording
Note taking
Audio recording
Note taking
Audio recording
Note taking
During the interview, two audio recorders were used in case of any malfunction of the
recording gadgets. All of the participants did not object to be audio-recorded. From the
researcher’s observation, none of them demonstrated any uneasiness of having their
conversations recorded. However, both R002 and R003 did ask whether the recording gadgets
had been switched off at the end of the interviews. There was a concern with the quality of the
recording with the third interview which was conducted in a restaurant. Indeed it was a valid
cause for concern as the interview took place at the outdoor wing of the restaurant. Halfway
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through the interview, rain came down hard pelting the roof. However, the latest Sony IC
Recorder proved to be excellent because the noise reduction feature filtered the noise and the
conversation was quite clear.
After each interview, the researcher replayed the recording and entered some comments into
her field notes. Each interview took about two days to transcribe. The analysis of the pilot data is
using content analysis. The unit of analysis which shall be discussed first is about the
participants’ understanding of the word ‘competence’. The interview text was arranged into
seven content areas: the understanding of competence and competencies; experiences related to
workplace learning; facilitating learning experience and helping others to learn; self-management
of own career and future development; experience of spousal, family and organizational support;
experience of gender diversity at work; and other experiences that provide significant learning
opportunity.
The transcribed interviews were read over and over again in order to get the overall sense of
the whole meaning. Next, the women’s understanding of the word ‘competence’ were extracted
and brought together into one text to create the unit of analysis. The question used to elicit the
response is as the following: ‘Based on your opinion, what do you understand with the word
“competence”? The text then was divided into meaning units that were condensed, abstracted
and labeled with a code. The following are the text extracted for the purpose of creating the unit
of analysis.
Different interpretation of competence
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The pilot findings of this study revealed that there are different interpretations of
competence. Managerial competencies are not only confined to managing top-down but also
bottom-up.
Competence … in term of knowledge and your skill … and the ability to communicate
well, and there has to be that interpersonal skills and [managing] the management as
well as [the] board… you maybe 1st class, you maybe be very good in your area…but if
you not able to deal with the people … It’s difficult. That would be difficult to actually
get things going the way you want it or the way the company want it. So sometime in my
area I have to manage the management as well as the Board. (R001, General Manager,
Private Sector)
Apart from that, the importance of possessing nurturing qualities and ethics are also highlighted.
… ability to interact with people. And I think because they find me easy … to talk to me,
you know, … you must make people feel comfortable to come to you and to tell you their
problem, and also you must be open minded. You must be able to listen to other people’s
opinion, and not only to listen to yourself …to think out of the box. Normally the task that
is given to us, we have to solve it. But you can’t break the rules. (R003, Principal
Director, Public Sector)
Learning at the workplace
These women also see themselves as active agents in the learning process at the workplace.
I think I have learnt a lot from my Deputy Director by observing … what he did. I mean
… observing him doing his things, how does he manage to think out of the box. I think I
have learnt a lot from him. And at the same time as much as I can I’ll try to call for a
meeting for my unit so that we will exchange ideas or talk about … if there are any big
problems to be solved and how to improve our unit. So, I try also [to] coordinate a
meeting among my unit. (R003, Principal Director, Public Sector)
Learning at the workplace through social interaction is evident in the interviews. Apart from
learning from their superiors, one participant particularly highlighted the importance to learn
from her subordinates who have been working for many years in the organization.
I seek my subordinates’ support and learn from them a lot … some areas that I am not
familiar with… this is a new field to me, so I get them to brief me, explain to me …and
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they are very supportive … I am not an accountant … but I have to know a lot about it …I
try to cope … by asking senior guys who happened to be my subordinates. They know
more about these things that I do… Subordinate who has wide experience can be our
mentor because you don’t put yourself above everyone … otherwise your learning is
limited. (R002, Deputy Head of Section, GLC)
The other unit of analysis revolves around the issue of gender role.
The gendered divisions of authority
The prevalent cultural beliefs about gender where traditionally women are not expected
to assume leadership is still going strong. R003 reflected on the challenges she faced as the new
Principal Director. There are times where she found herself leapfrogged by clients who were, for
unknown reasons, not feeling comfortable meeting her prior to any formal introduction. Her selfesteem was affected in the beginning but she had learnt to accept it as the norm rather than
exception.
And sometimes, people who don’t know us … they don’t feel comfortable to come to us
and talk because of the gender. I do sometimes encounter that… What will happen is that
then they will either go direct to my boss, the Deputy Director, which sometimes I don’t
really like it … or they go to my subordinates. But I call or email them after that … that
break the ice. (R003, Principal Director, Public Sector)
The gendered divisions of labour and/or responsibility
The inclusions and exclusions of women and men based on the particular type of labour
or dealings are still pervasive. Women are perceived to be less competent in organizational
context and therefore not expected to represent the organizations when dealing with clients or
local authorities.
The people I think in the industry they are really male. Male and you know [laugh] And
then I supposed also that this business having to deal with the authorities,
authorities...entertaining authorities … It still, I see that it still dominated by males
(R001, General Manager, Private Sector)
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Gender stereotyping
Duguid (2011) observes that highly qualified female may be perceived as competitive
threat by other female incumbents. The senior managers may end up abdicating the opportunity
to support fellow female managers especially the newcomers. This may explain also for the lack
of female role models and sponsors for female managers. Senior incumbents who perceive value
threat by the newcomers may find ways to devalue them or downplay their competence.
… they said, ‘you have nothing to worry about, you are lucky, you don’t have to do
anything to get things done your way, you just giggle your way up’.[in reference to her
tendency to laugh] I just smile but I was seething with anger at that remarks. Yes, I laugh
a lot. But I deliver. (R001, General Manager, Private Sector)
6.
DISCUSSION
This exploratory pilot study has explored women managers’ experience in order to
develop an understanding into their competence acquisition and the issues surrounding their
learning at workplace.
Apart from possessing the necessary knowledge and skill, people management skill is
perceived as one of the most important managerial competencies. People management involves
not only managing subordinates but also the stakeholders. Bottom-up management requires sharp
negotiation skill. The ability to blend decisiveness and persuasion present a unique combination
that proves to be powerful in the negotiation process. One woman manager attributed her ability
to get the discussion underway despite facing some deadlocks in the beginning to her
authoritative persuasion skill. The other competency highlighted is ethics. Managers are
expected to solve the day to day challenges that they face at the workplace. Being creative and
able to think out of the box is highly required of the managers especially in solving the problems
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and executing important assignments. However, the question of ethics remains central. In the
quest for excellent performance, they are conscious of not overstepping the boundary of ethics
and governance.
The three women interviewed in this pilot study exhibit the characters of self-directed
learners. They are motivated to learn despite the hardship they face especially in grappling with
new identities which come with their promotions. The most striking feature is that none of them
benefit from any formal mentoring or coaching program. In coping with such constraints, they
took upon themselves to observe their immediate superiors, consulting them and attending
meetings with them. Apart from that, they create their own learning network by extending it to
include their experienced subordinates.
Resilience is one of their trademarks. They do not view the pervasive gendered practice
as hindrance but work around it to achieve their goals. In fact, they even use their feminine traits
to their advantage especially in breaking deadlocks during discussion. Gender stereotyping is
still prevalent in these three types of organizations. Interestingly, it is women themselves who
seem to be increasingly perpetrating the so-called gender bias behavior. Why is that so? What
drive them to devalue their female counterparts? Duguid (2011) argues that female tokens are
more likely to consciously avoid supporting other women because they perceive competitive
threat. Hence, negotiating possible conflicts with other women in top management is also
inevitable for these participants.
7.
CONCLUSION
The paper describes the pilot multiple-case study conducted with the aim to gain deeper
understanding of women managers’ competence acquisition with specific reference to workplace
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learning. There are lessons learnt, friendship developed and insights gained during the pilot
work.
Lessons learnt
Firstly, to treat others as you wish to be treated by them. Despite the high positions they
occupy at work, these women are also mothers and wives. The researcher learnt that it is
important to be genuinely genuine in giving voices to them with as little filtering as possible
from the academic perspective. In so far as possible, the interviews were conducted in an
interactive manner where the conversation flowed both ways. In this way, a more “sisterly
exchange” as advocated by Oakley (1998) between the researcher and the researched could take
place.
Secondly, flexible but focused. While two ways of conversation is advocated, the
researcher bears in mind that her voice shall be reduced so that the participant’s insight can be
enhanced. There were also times when the researcher struggled with the urge to interrupt the
participants’ narratives or to complete their sentences when it was apparent that they were
struggling with their articulations. On the other hand, there is a list of semi-structured interview
questions which have been generated in order to address the research questions guiding this
study. Therefore, a delicate balance has to be maintained between the quest for information
needed by the research and the flexibility to allow for the women narratives to be heard.
Thirdly, the importance of field notes. Field notes are important in supporting the
reorientation at the later stage of the analysis. In the beginning, there was less attention paid to
documenting field note. While transcribing the first interview, the researcher struggled to
reorient herself with the participant’s narratives.
Friendship developed
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The research process in many ways had affected the researcher especially after some
considerable emphatic interviewing experiences with the participants. One of the participant
even offers an opportunity to conduct a validation study at her organization in the future. The
researcher firmly believes that this is one of the strongest justifications for the use of feminist
perspective within the interpretive tradition in researching women’s lives.
Insight gained
Researching women from different background who hail from the GLC, public and
private sector serve as an eye opener to the researcher towards the complex realities facing
women in management. These women overcome challenges in getting to where they are today.
The types and gravity of their problems may not be identical but they are confronted with the
same options: to bow down when their self-esteem and psychological well-being are threatened
or to rise up to the challenge and find a way round the obstacles. The typical traits of these
women are resilience, motivated, driven and humble in the face of adversity while carefully
planning a successful comeback.
The practical implication of this pilot study is to lay the foundation for further research
into women in management with specific reference to competence at workplace. The research
shall seek to address the lack of theoretically-based and actionable framework by embarking on a
theory building process via the constructivist GT approach using the multiple-case study
strategy. The inquiry shall be guided by the feminist principles within the interpretive tradition of
the qualitative research. It would be interesting also to study the influence of ethnicity on
women’s competence acquisition and workplace learning. Another possible consideration is also
to discuss the concept of indigenous feminism.
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