Tutorial 26
STS and the Data for Analysis
Overview of Main Points
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How to get data for science technology and society decisions
Examples of research and data for the courtroom
Sometimes we must rely on experts who have a personal bias
Differences between research and data for law and for science
26.1 Introduction
We get our data for STS issues from experts. However when the experts have conflicting
views, we must try to discover truth. Research on public policy can be unbiased if it is
not sponsored by corporations with an interest in the results. However, research in the
courtroom is biased based on the structure that sets up the lawyer’s need to serve their
client. When comparing research and data for the courtroom with that for science we find
that research for science is done with full disclosure of information and repetition before
drawing conclusions. Research in the courtroom that is contrary to the lawyer’s case does
not have to be disclosed to the court. In research for science, the whole truth is explored
and disclosed if known. In law, truth is told, but not the whole truth.
26.2 Where do we get the data from?
Research and data for science and public policy
Earlier in the semester we noted that we should be careful to avoid bias of the sponsor in
research. It is hoped that research and data for science and public policies is well tested
and done by experts in the field. Full disclosure of results and findings is a common part
of the ethics of research in science. We noted that sometimes when research is sponsored
by someone who has a potential benefit from some outcomes there is a bias. Research for
science should not have this bias if we are to believe it.
Research in the courtroom:
We noted that statistics do not necessarily lie, but they can be used in very misleading
ways. Examples shown in class included the case of Domino’s Pizza vs. Domino’s
Science, Technology and Society: A Tutorial for Engineers, Scientists and Business version 1.0 Spring 1997
Dr. Vincent G. Duffy IEEM and Dr. Robert Ferguson, SOSC Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
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Sugar. The sugar company had been around much longer and argued that the Pizza
company should not be allowed to use the name because people already associated the
name Domino’s with sugar and this Pizza company would confuse people as to the ‘true’
meaning of the word Domino’s. When presenting the data collected for their case, the
sugar company only interviewed women at home during the day in cities that did not have
Domino’s Pizza stores. The pizza company presented data that showed people who hear
the word Domino’s think of pizza, but only asked people leaving a Domino’s pizza store.
The point this brings up is that the methods used for collecting the data can influence the
results.
26.3 Who do we rely on for our information?
We rely on experts in the field. What methods do the experts use? Sometimes personal
experience, sometimes data collection from questionnaires and surveys.
Who are experts in the field?
Sometimes University people, technical specialists in industry, or doctors. These people
you hope will decide based on the facts of the case, not a personal bias. We also must
rely on salesmen, advertisers and lawyers. The lawyers hope to protect and defend their
clients against those who may have wronged them. Also, manufacturers and salespeople
know their product as well as anyone else. We rely on them to give us good information.
However, both lawyers, advertisers, salespeople, manufacturers have a personal interest
in the outcome (money usually). So we must hope they do not misuse the ‘trust’ that is
given them by the public.
How is truth determined?
Many times we will hear conflicting opinions and conflicting views from different
‘experts’ and we have to be careful to note what is the ‘self-interest’ of the person (if any)
giving us the information. So we must be careful to check their methods when possible.
And how is truth determined? Well, survey research is not really designed to give truth,
just people’s perception, or their opinion about the truth. It can be used to reflect state of
mind and what people think about something. Truth is not always known until afterward.
We hope that truth comes from credible and believable experts. We have to work to seek
them.
When we see conflicting opinions, and want to check the methods, some things that can
be looked at are as follows:
wording of the questions and the instructions
number of people contacted and number who refused to answer
Science, Technology and Society: A Tutorial for Engineers, Scientists and Business version 1.0 Spring 1997
Dr. Vincent G. Duffy IEEM and Dr. Robert Ferguson, SOSC Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
62
number of completed surveys/interviews/questionnaires
note who is represented in the sample:
Try to tell whether or not the sample only represents only a select group of people or does
the sample represent a larger group of people (or maybe even everyone).
Bias in research and data in the courtroom
A famous lawyer once said ‘I would not go into a courtroom lawsuit with an objective,
uncommitted expert witness’. Another said ‘We figure out what truth we are telling and
then figure out how to tell that truth’. These are not necessarily lies, but the lawyers
obviously have an interest in the outcome. They want to ‘win’ and serve their clients the
best they can, since the client is paying them.
26.4 Compare research for courtroom with research for science
Sometimes in the courtroom we have to trust people who have a stake or interest in the
outcome. Both lawyers will make a case that is biased and findings will likely reflect the
interest of their client. In science, we hope to have unbiased studies and findings.
In research for law, if something happens once, they call it evidence. If something
happens once in science, it is not enough to draw conclusions. Physics Laws such as
Newton’s laws should be repeatable. This is not the case in law.
In data and research for science it is expected, and is the ethical responsibility of the
researchers to give all the information available for decision making. They have to tell
the whole truth. In law, lawyer has the right ‘not to disclose’ facts that may adversely or
negatively affect his client. The lawyer doesn’t have to disclose anything that is opposite
to his claim. They must tell the truth, but do not really have to tell the whole truth.
26.5 Further Study
Cynthia Crossen, Tainted Truth, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1994.
Science, Technology and Society: A Tutorial for Engineers, Scientists and Business version 1.0 Spring 1997
Dr. Vincent G. Duffy IEEM and Dr. Robert Ferguson, SOSC Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
63