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n.
1. The use of microorganisms, such as bacteria or yeasts, or biological substances, such
as enzymes, to perform specific industrial or manufacturing processes. Applications
include the production of certain drugs, synthetic hormones, and bulk foodstuffs as
well as the bioconversion of organic waste and the use of genetically altered bacteria
in the cleanup of oil spills.
2.
a. The application of the principles of engineering and technology to the life
sciences; bioengineering.
b. See ergonomics (sense 1).
biotechnical bi'o·tech'ni·cal (-nĭ-kəl) adj.
biotechnological bi'o·tech'no·log'i·cal (-nə-lŏj'ĭ-kəl) adj.
biotechnology
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Sci-Tech Encyclopedia: Biotechnology
Generally, any technique that is used to make or modify the products of living organisms in
order to improve plants or animals, or to develop useful microorganisms. In modern terms,
biotechnology has come to mean the use of cell and tissue culture, cell fusion, molecular
biology, and in particular, recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology to generate
unique organisms with new traits or organisms that have the potential to produce specific
products. Some examples of products in a number of important disciplines are described
below.
Recombinant DNA technology has opened new horizons in the study of gene function and
the regulation of gene action. In particular, the ability to insert genes and their controlling
nucleic acid sequences into new recipient organisms allows for the manipulation of these
genes in order to examine their activity in unique environments, away from the constraints
posed in their normal host. Genetic transformation normally is achieved easily with
microorganisms; new genetic material may be inserted into them, either into their
chromosomes or into extrachromosomal elements, the plasmids. Thus, bacteria and yeast can
be created to metabolize specific products or to produce new products. See also Gene; Gene
action; Plasmid.
Genetic engineering has allowed for significant advances in the understanding of the structure
and mode of action of antibody molecules. Practical use of immunological techniques is
pervasive in biotechnology. See also Antibody.
Few commercial products have been marketed for use in plant agriculture, but many have
been tested. Interest has centered on producing plants that are resistant to specific herbicides.
This resistance would allow crops to be sprayed with the particular herbicide, and only the
weeds would be killed, not the genetically engineered crop species. Resistances to plant virus
diseases have been induced in a number of crop species by transforming plants with portions
of the viral genome, in particular the virus's coat protein.
Biotechnology also holds great promise in the production of vaccines for use in maintaining
the health of animals. Interferons are also being tested for their use in the management of
specific diseases.
Animals may be transformed to carry genes from other species including humans and are
being used to produce valuable drugs. For example, goats are being used to produce tissue
plasminogen activator, which has been effective in dissolving blood clots.
Plant scientists have been amazed at the ease with which plants can be transformed to enable
them to express foreign genes. This field has developed very rapidly since the first
transformation of a plant was reported in 1982, and a number of transformation procedures
are available.
Genetic engineering has enabled the large-scale production of proteins which have great
potential for treatment of heart attacks. Many human gene products, produced with genetic
engineering technology, are being investigated for their potential use as commercial drugs.
Recombinant technology has been employed to produce vaccines from subunits of viruses, so
that the use of either live or inactivated viruses as immunizing agents is avoided. Cloned
genes and specific, defined nucleic acid sequences can be used as a means of diagnosing
infectious diseases or in identifying individuals with the potential for genetic disease. The
specific nucleic acids used as probes are normally tagged with radioisotopes, and the DNAs
of candidate individuals are tested by hybridization to the labeled probe. The technique has
been used to detect latent viruses such as herpes, bacteria, mycoplasmas, and plasmodia, and
to identify Huntington's disease, cystic fibrosis, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. It is now
also possible to put foreign genes into cells and to target them to specific regions of the
recipient genome. This presents the possibility of developing specific therapies for hereditary
diseases, exemplified by sickle-cell anemia.
Modified microorganisms are being developed with abilities to degrade hazardous wastes.
Genes have been identified that are involved in the pathway known to degrade
polychlorinated biphenyls, and some have been cloned and inserted into selected bacteria to
degrade this compound in contaminated soil and water. Other organisms are being sought to
degrade phenols, petroleum products, and other chlorinated compounds. See also Genetic
engineering; Molecular biology.
Computer Desktop Encyclopedia: biotechnology
The application of high-tech research and development to the medical field. See biosensor.
World of the Body: biotechnology
Biotechnology is unique amongst the three principal technologies for the twenty-first century
— information technology, materials science, and biotechnology — in being a sustainable
technology based on renewable biological resources. Such natural resources include animals,
plants, yeasts, and microorganisms and have formed mankind's nascent food and beverage
industry for several millennia. However, the modern era of scientific biotechnology
commenced with the elucidation of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953 and
the subsequent development of the tools to cleave and resplice genetic material in the early
1970s. Not surprisingly, therefore, the term ‘biotechnology’ is generally considered
synonymous with gene splicing and other forms of genetic engineering. In practice, however,
biotechnology refers to a library of advanced scientific tools for the manipulation of
biological organisms, systems, or components for the production of goods or services in all
sectors of human activity.
The early years of the ‘new’ biotechnology focused on the technologies required to clone,
overexpress, purify, and administer biopharmaceuticals such as insulin, growth hormone,
factor VIII (deficient in haemophilia), and erythropoietin, with some 200 other proteins
currently in the pipeline. However, in the future, the most significant breakthroughs in human
medicine will result from mapping and understanding the human genome — in elucidating
the exact sequence of the billions of nucleotides that constitute the estimated 30 000-40 000
genes that are the collective blueprint for human beings and are responsible for some 10 000
genetic disorders. The Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 as a 15-year, $3 billion
international effort to map and sequence all human genes. Innovations in sequencing
technology have ensured that the project moved ahead of schedule. With less than 5% of all
human genes identified at the start of the project, it has become increasingly clear that each
new gene discovery proffers new drugs for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of human
disease. These drugs include therapeutic proteins, diagnostics, gene therapy reagents, and
small molecules. A significant proportion of the human genome has been sequenced and
many new human disease genes are being characterized. These advances will enable
biotechnologists not only to measure disease potential and expand the applications for
genomic diagnostics but also to devise fundamental new therapeutic approaches.
Genomics and genetic engineering are also playing a substantial role in the development of
agricultural biotechnology. This sector is finally moving out from under the shadow of the
biopharmaceutical community and is now competing in terms of publicity and investor
attention. This is because $1 billion is considered an attractive market in the
biopharmaceutical industry, whilst global agricultural markets can readily top $10 billion and
the total end-use value of food, fibre, and biomass is estimated to be over $1500 billion. The
addressable market on which value can be added and costs cut is at least 6-7 times that of its
pharmaceutical counterpart. Two of the factors that have encouraged biotechnologists to enter
the genetically engineered food and plant arena are the desire of consumers for better tasting
foods and a preference for products grown using fewer pesticides. Calgene was the first
company to market a genetically improved tomato which could be ripened on the vine
without softening and thereby result in improved taste and texture. Antisense technology was
used to inhibit the enzyme polygalacturonase which degrades pectin in the cell wall.
Similarly, laurate Canola is the world's first oilseed crop that has been genetically engineered
to modify oil composition. Laurate is the key raw material used in the manufacture of soap,
detergent, food, oleochemical, and personal care products. Other examples of transgenic
agricultural crops include high stearate and myristate oils, low saturate oils, high solids
tomatoes and potatoes, sweet minipeppers, modified lignin in paper pulp trees, pesticideresistant plants, and biodegradeable plastics.
The early goals in the development of transgenic livestock were the increase of the meat and
of the production characteristics of food animals. However, long research and development
timelines and low projected profit margins, especially in developed nations where food is
relatively inexpensive, have shifted priorities to the production of protein pharmaceuticals
and nutraceuticals in the milk of transgenic animals. Milk has a high natural protein content
and is sequestered in a gland where its proteins exert little direct systemic effect. It provides a
renewable production system that is capable of complex and specific ‘post-translational
processing’: that is, modifications to the protein that occur after it has been synthesized as a
polypeptide (such as conjugation with carbohydrate moieties), which can alter the biological
or therapeutic properties of the protein. Such changes cannot easily be accomplished in
conventional cell culture systems. As a result, the ‘biopharming’ focus has shifted to the
production of human blood plasma proteins and other therapeutic proteins, in ruminants such
as cows, sheep, and goats which are easy to milk.
Marine organisms are also capable of producing a variety of polymers, adhesives, and
compounds for cosmetics and food preparation. Bioactive natural products are found in
organisms that reside in areas which stretch from easily accessible intertidal zones to depths
in excess of 1000 m. Collaborations between marine chemists, molecular pharmacologists,
and cell biologists have yielded an impressive library of potentially useful cancer, viral,
antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular, and CNS drugs.
The pharmaceutical, agrichemical, and speciality chemical industries are increasingly
requiring molecules which have distinct left- or right-handed forms, so-called chiral
compounds. Whilst chemical and biological techniques for producing single left- or righthanded forms are developing apace, it is apparent that no single approach is likely to
dominate. Suppliers and customers alike must continue to draw upon the entire range of
chemical, enzymatic, and whole-organism tools that are available to produce chiral
compounds. Unfortunately, only 10% of the 25 000 or so enzymes found in nature have been
identified and characterized, and, of these, only 25 are produced in large quantities. Despite
some duplication in activity among enzymes, there is a need to characterize more in order to
exploit their unique specificity and activity. However, barriers to enzyme scale-up include
product inhibition and a general reluctance on the part of chemists to use water-based
reagents in systems which are traditionally non-aqueous. Consequently, enzymes should be
made more user-friendly both for bench chemists exploring novel synthetic strategies and for
all stages in pharmaceutical scale-up. However, the biologists' toolbox for catalysis is
expanding. For decades, there were only two types of catalyst — metals and enzymes — but
since 1986 two new classes of biocatalyst have emerged along with the enzymes, ribozymes,
and catalytic antibodies. These novel biocatalysts are prepared both by classical biochemical
and immunological methods and by recombinant and phage display technologies. Whilst
there are still many catalysts still to be discovered, such biocatalysts will have to exhibit
improved performance, stability, turnover numbers, specificity, and product yields.
Biotechnology is also playing a role in ‘clean’ manufacturing. Nevertheless, various types of
chemical manufacturing, metal plating, wood preserving, and petroleum refining industries
currently generate hazardous wastes, comprising volatile organics, chlorinated and petroleum
hydrocarbons, solvents, and heavy metals. Bioremediation with microbial consortia is being
investigated as a means of cleaning up hazardous sites. Methods include in situ and ex situ
treatment of contaminated soil, groundwater, industrial wastewater, sludges, soil slurries,
marine oil spills, and vapour-phase effluvia.
Biotechnology is expected to contribute massively to the global economy, largely through the
introduction of recombinant DNA technology to the production of biopharmaceuticals. In the
future, biotechnology will concentrate on the complexity and interrelatedness of biology,
with such targets as the human genome project; genetic medicine; gene and cell therapy;
tissue engineering; vaccines; factors for transcribing DNA into RNA; signal transduction and
the control of gene expression; managing ageing at the level of programmed cell death, and
genes that control cell division; neurobiotechnology; agri-industrial biotechnology; drug
delivery; cell adhesion and communication; and novel diagnostics. Needless to say, and
subject to clarification of certain ethical and public acceptance issues, biotechnology is set to
make an indelible contribution to human health and welfare well into the foreseeable future.
— C. R. Lowe
Food Lover's Companion: biotechnology; bioengineered foods
Very basically, food-related biotechnology is the process by which a specific gene or group
of genes with desirable traits are removed from the DNA of one plant or animal cell and
spliced into that of another. Such beneficial genes might come from animals, (friendly)
bacteria, fish, insects, plants and even humans. In some instances, genes that create problems
(such as the natural softening of a tomato) are simply removed and not replaced. Tomatoes,
for example, are generally picked green and gas-ripened later because, during shipping, they
would become soft, bruised and unmarketable. A bioengineered tomato, however, can be
picked ripe and shipped without softening. The objective of food biotechnology is to develop
insect- and disease-resistant, shipping- and shelf-stable foods with improved appearance,
texture and flavor. Additionally, biotechnology advocates say that the process will produce
plants that are resistant to adverse weather conditions such as drought and frost, thereby
increasing food production in previously prohibitive climate and soil conditions. They also
envision increasing nutrient levels and decreasing pesticide usage through biotechnology. On
the other hand, critics argue that, because biotechnology is producing new foods not
previously consumed by humans, the changes and potential risks relating to such things as
toxins, allergens and reduced nutrients are unpredictable. They also worry that, because
genetically altered foods are not required to be labeled, people with religious or lifestyle
dietary restrictions might unintentionally consume prohibited foods. In answer to such
concerns, the FDA has issued the following evaluation guidelines by which a bioengineered
food will be judged for approval: 1. Has the concentration of a plant's naturally occurring
toxicant increased? 2. Has an allergic element not commonly found in the plant been
introduced? 3. Have the levels of important nutrients changed? 4. Have accepted, established
scientific practices been followed? 5. What are the effects on the environment?
Dental Dictionary: biotechnology
n
1. the study of the relationships between humans or other living organisms and machinery. n
2. the industrial application of the results of biologic research such as recombinant
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and gene splicing that permit the production of synthetic
hormones or enzymes.
Genetics Encyclopedia: Biotechnology
Did You Know?
Before Captain James
Cook, the famous English
sailor and navigator, had
his men drink lime juice
(which contains vitamin C)
during extended sea
voyages, many sailors fell
ill or died of the vitamin C
deficiency known as
scurvy.
Biotechnology, broadly defined, refers to the manipulation of biology or a biological product
for some human end. Before recorded history, humans grew selected plants for food and
medicines. They bred animals for food, for work, and as pets. The ancient Egyptians learned
how to maintain selected yeast cultures, which allowed them to bake and brew with
predictable results. These are all examples of biotechnology. In more recent times, however,
the term "biotechnology" has mainly been applied to specifically industrial processes that
involve the use of biological systems. Today many biotechnology companies use processes
that make use of genetically engineered microorganisms.
A Revolution in Biology
Following 1953, when Thomas Watson and Francis Crick published their famous paper on
the double helix structure of DNA, a series of independent discoveries were made in
chemistry, biochemistry, genetics, and microbiology, which together brought about a
revolution in biology and led to the first experiments in genetic engineering in 1973. Because
of this revolution, scientists learned to modify living microorganisms in a permanent,
predictable way. Bacteria have been made to produce medical products, such as hormones,
vaccines, and blood factors, that were formerly not available or available only at great
expense or in limited amounts. Crop plants have been developed with increased resistance to
disease or insect pests, or with greater tolerance to frost or drought. What has made all these
things possible is the collection of biochemical and molecular biological techniques for
manipulating genes, which are the basic units of biological inheritance. These are the
techniques used in genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology.
The fusion of traditional industrial microbiology and genetic engineering in the late 1970s led
to the development of the modern biotechnology industry. Using recombinant DNA
technology, this industry has brought a long and steadily growing list of products into the
marketplace. Human insulin produced by genetically engineered bacteria was one of the first
of these products. It was followed by human growth hormone; an anti-viral protein called
interferon; the immune stimulant called interleukin 2; a tissue plasminogen activator for
dissolving blood clots; two blood-clotting factors, labeled VIII and IX, which are
administered to hemophiliacs; and many other products.
Vitamin C
The production of certain chemicals has already become an important biotechnological
industry. Vitamin C is a prime example. Humans, as well as other primates, guinea pigs, the
Indian fruit bat, several species of fish, and a number of insects, all lack a key enzyme that is
required to convert a sugar, glucose, into vitamin C.
No single bacterial genus or species is known that will carry out all of the reactions needed to
synthesize vitamin C, but there are two (Erwinia species and Corynebacterium genus) that,
between them, can perform all but one of the required steps. In 1985 a gene from one of these
genus (Corynebacterium) was introduced into the second organism (Erwinia herbicola),
resulting in a new bacterial form. This engineered organism can be used to produce a
precursor to vitamin C that is converted via one chemical reaction into this essential vitamin.
The engineering of many other microorganisms is being used to replace complex chemical
reactions. For example, amino acids, needed for dietary supplements, are produced on a large
scale using genetically modified microorganisms, as are antibiotics.
Laundry Detergents
Another important class of compounds produced by biotechnology is enzymes. These protein
catalysts are used widely in both medical and industrial research. Proteases, enzymes that
break down proteins, are particularly important in detergents, in tanning hides, in food
processing, and in the chemical industry. One of the most significant commercial enzymes of
this type is subtilisin, which is produced by a bacterium. Because many stains contain
proteins, the manufacturers of laundry detergents include subtilisin in their product. Subtilisin
is 274 amino acids long, and one of these, the methionine at position 222, lies right beside the
active site of the enzyme. This is the site on the enzyme's surface where the substrate is
bound, and where the reaction that is catalyzed by the enzyme takes place. In this instance the
substrate is a protein in a stain, and the reaction results in the breaking of a peptide bond in
the backbone of the protein. Unfortunately, methionine is an amino acid that is very easily
oxidized, and laundry detergents are often used in conjunction with bleach, which is a strong
oxidizing agent. When used with bleach, the methionine in subtilisin is oxidized and the
enzyme is inactivated, preventing the subtilisin from doing its work of breaking down the
proteins present in food stains, blood stains, and the like.
To overcome this problem, genetic engineering techniques were used to isolate the gene for
subtilisin, and the small part of the gene that codes for methionine 222 was replaced by
chemically synthesized DNA fragments that coded for other amino acids. The experiment
was done in such a way that nineteen new subtilisin genes were produced, and every possible
amino acid was tried at position 222. Some of the altered genes gave rise to inactive versions
of the enzyme, but others resulted in fully functional subtilisin. When these subtilisins were
tested for their resistance to oxidation, most were found to be very good (except when
cysteine replaced methionine: It too is easily oxidized). So now it is possible to use laundry
detergent and bleach at the same time and still remove protein-based stains. This type of gene
manipulation, which has been called "protein engineering," has already been used for making
beneficial changes in other industrial enzymes, and in proteins used for medical purposes.
Other Examples
Biotechnology companies are continuing to produce new products at an impressive rate.
Numerous clinical testing procedures for human disorders such as AIDS and hepatitis and for
disease-causing organisms such as those responsible for malaria and Legionnaires' disease (a
lung infection caused by the bacterium Legionella pneumophila), are based on diagnostic
testing kits that have been developed by biotechnology companies. Many of these assays
make use of recombinant antibodies, while others rely on DNA primers that are used in the
polymerase chain reaction to detect DNA sequences present in an infecting organism, but not
in the human genome.
Trangenic plants are now grown on millions of acres. Many of these plant species have been
engineered to produce a protein, normally synthesized by the bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis, which is toxic to a number of agriculturally destructive insect pests but
harmless to humans, most other non-insect animals, and many beneficial insects such as bees.
Ethical Issues
Like all industries, the biotechnology industry is subject to rules and regulations. Legal,
social, and ethical concerns have been raised by the ability to genetically alter organisms.
These have resulted in the establishment of governmental guidelines for the performance of
biotechnology research, and specific requirements have been set to control the introduction of
recombinant DNA products into the marketplace. General governmental guidelines for
biotech research are published on the Internet at
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotech/OECD/usregs.htm. Guidelines for plant genetic
engineering and biotechnology are available at
http://sbc.ucdavis.edu/Outreach/resource/US_gov.htm.
—Dennis N. Luck
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: biotechnology
The use of biology to solve problems and make useful products. The growth of the field is
linked to the development in the 1970s of genetic engineering. Biotechnology merges
biological information with computer technology to advance research in other areas,
including nanotechnology and regenerative medicine. Today there are numerous commercial
biotechnology firms that manufacture genetically engineered substances for a variety of
mostly medical, agricultural, and ecological uses.
For more information on biotechnology, visit Britannica.com.
Columbia Encyclopedia: biotechnology,
the use of biological processes, as through the exploitation and manipulation of living
organisms or biological systems, in the development or manufacture of a product or in the
technological solution to a problem. As such, biotechnology is a general category that has
applications in pharmacology, medicine, agriculture, and many other fields.
The techniques of genetic engineering have been used to manipulate the DNA (genetic
material; see nucleic acid) of bacteria and other organisms to manufacture biological products
such as drugs (insulin, interferon, and growth hormones). A common technique involved in
this process in gene splicing, in which a gene that produces a desired product can be inserted
into bacterial DNA. Bacteria can then be grown in large quantities and processed to extract
the desired substance; specially cultured plant and animal cells can be similarly grown and
processed. Hybrids of cancer and antibody-producing cells (hybridomas) have been cloned in
the laboratory to mass produce experimental monoclonal antibodies, which are being studied
for the treatment of cancer and other diseases. Bacteria have also been altered to break down
oil slicks and industrial waste products.
Plants and foods with such desired qualities as prolonged shelf life or increased resistance to
diseases and pests have been created through genetic engineering; that is, by inserting DNA
from other organisms. Much of the corn and soybeans grown in the United States, for
example, are now genetically modified in some way, Livestock have also been genetically
altered to produce medically useful substances (see pharming). The field of biotechnology
also includes gene therapy, in which attempts are made to insert normal or genetically altered
genes into cells to treat genetic disorders and chronic diseases.
Bibliography
See R. W. Old and S. B. Primrose, Principles of Gene Manipulation (5th ed. 1994); J. E.
Smith, Biotechnology (3d ed. 1996).
Food & Culture Encyclopedia: Biotechnology
Biotechnology, in its broadest sense, is the use of biological systems to carry out technical
processes. Food biotechnology uses genetic methods to enhance food properties and to
improve production, and in particular uses direct (rather than random) strategies to modify
genes that are responsible for traits such as a vegetable's nutritional content. Using modern
biotechnology, scientists can move genes for valuable traits from one plant into another plant.
This way, they can make a plant taste or look better, be more nutritious, protect itself from
insects, produce more food, or survive and prosper in inhospitable environments, for
example, by incorporating tolerance to increased soil salinity. Simply put, food biotechnology
is the practice of directing genetic changes in organisms that produce food in order to make a
better product.
In nature, plants produce their own chemical defenses to ward off disease and insects thereby
reducing the need for insecticide sprays. Biotechnology is often used to enhance these
defenses. Some improvements are crop specific. For example, potatoes with a higher starch
content will absorb less oil when frying, and tomatoes with delayed ripening qualities will
have improved taste and freshness.
Paving the Way to Modern Biotechnology
Advances in science over many years account for what we know and are able to accomplish
with modern biotechnology and food production. A brief review of genetics and biochemistry
is useful in evaluating the role of biotechnology in our food supply.
Proteins are composed of various combinations of amino acids. They are essential for life—
both for an organism's structure, and for the metabolic reactions necessary for the organism to
function. The number, kind, and order of amino acids in a specific protein determine its
properties. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which is present in all the cells of all organisms,
contains the information needed for cells to put amino acids in the correct order. In other
words, DNA contains the genetic blueprint determining how cells in all living organisms
store, duplicate, and pass information about protein structure from generation to generation.
In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick published their discovery that the molecular
structure of DNA is a double helix, for which they, along with Maurice H. F. Wilkins, won a
Nobel Prize in 1962. Two strands of DNA are composed of pairs of chemicals—adenine (A)
and thymine (T); and guanine (G) and cytosine (C). A segment of DNA that encodes enough
information to make one protein is called a gene. It is the order of DNA's base pairs that
determines specific genes that code for specific proteins, which determines individual traits.
By 1973 scientists had found ways to isolate individual genes, and by the 1980s, scientists
could transfer single genes from one organism to another. This process, much like traditional
crossbreeding, allows transferred traits to pass to future generations of the recipient organism.
One Goal, Two Approaches
The objective of plant biotechnology and traditional crop breeding is the same: to improve
the characteristics of seed so that the resulting plants have new, desirable traits. The primary
difference between the two techniques is how the objective is achieved. Plant breeders have
used traditional tools such as hybridization and crossbreeding to improve the quality and
yield of their crops with a resulting wide variability in our foods. These traditional techniques
resulted in several benefits, such as greatly increased crop production and improved quality
of food and feed crops, which has proven beneficial to growers and producers as well as
consumers through a reduction of the cost of food for consumers. However, traditional plant
breeding techniques do have some limits; only plants from the same or similar species can be
interbred. Because of this, the sources for potential desirable traits are finite. In addition, the
process of crossbreeding is very time-consuming, at times taking ten to twelve years to
achieve the desired goal—and complications can arise because all genes of the two "parent"
plants are combined together. This means that both the desirable and undesirable traits may
be expressed in the new plant. It takes a significant amount of time to remove the unwanted
traits by "back crossing" the new plant over many generations to achieve the desired traits.
These biotech methods can preserve the unique genetic composition of some crops while
allowing the addition or incorporation of specific genetic traits, such as resistance to disease.
However, development of transgenic crop varieties still requires a significant investment of
time and resources.
The Many Applications of Biotechnology
Since the earliest times, people have been using simple forms of biotechnology to improve
their food supply, long before the discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick.
For example, grapes and grains were modified through fermentation with microorganisms
and used to make wine, beer, and leavened bread. Modern biotechnology, which uses the
latest molecular biology technology, allows us to more directly modify our foods. Whereas
traditional plant breeding mixes tens of thousands of genes, biotechnology allows for the
transfer of a single gene, or a few select genes or traits. The most common uses thus far have
been the introduction of traits that help farmers simplify crop production, reduce pesticide use
in some crops, and increase profitability by reduction of crop losses to weeds, insect damage,
or disease.
In general, the early applications of crop biotechnology have been at points in our food
supply chain where economic benefit can be gained. The following are examples of modern
biotechnology where success has been achieved or is in progress.
Insect resistance. Crop losses from insect pests can cause devastating financial loss for
growers and starvation in developing countries. In the United States and Europe, thousands of
tons of pesticides are used to control insects. Using modern biotechnology, scientists and
farmers have removed the need for the use of some of these chemicals. Insect-protected
plants are developed by introducing a gene into a plant that produces a specific protein from a
naturally occurring soil organism. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is one of many bacteria
naturally present in soil. This bacterium is known to be lethal to certain classes of insects, and
only those organisms. The Bt protein produced by the bacterium is the natural insecticide.
Growing foods, such as Bt corn, can help eliminate the application of chemical pesticides and
reduce the cost of bringing a crop to market. The introduction of insect-protected crops such
as Bt cotton has allowed reduced use of chemical pesticides. This suggests that genetically
engineered food crops can also be grown with reduced use of pesticides, a development that
would be welcomed by the general public.
Herbicide tolerance. Every year, farmers must battle weeds that compete with their crops for
water, nutrients, sunlight, and space. Weeds can also harbor insects and disease. Farmers
routinely use two or more different chemicals on a crop to remove both grass and broadleaf
weeds. In recent years new "broad-spectrum" chemicals have been discovered that control all
these weeds and therefore require only one application of one chemical to the crop. To
provide crops with a defense against these nonselective herbicides, genes have been added to
plants that render the chemicals inactive—but only in the new, herbicide-resistant crop. Many
benefits come from these crops, including better and more flexible weed control for farmers,
increased use of conservation tillage (involving less working of the soil and thereby
decreasing erosion), and promoting the use of herbicides that have a better environmental
profile (that is, that are less toxic to nontarget organisms).
Disease resistance. Many viruses, fungi, and bacteria can cause plant diseases, resulting in
crop damage and loss. Researchers have had great success in developing crops that are
protected from certain types of plant viruses by introducing DNA from the virus into the
plant. In essence, the plants are "vaccinated" against specific diseases. Because most plant
viruses are spread by insects, farmers can use fewer insecticides and still have healthy crops
and high yields.
Drought tolerance and salinity tolerance. As the world population grows and industrial
demand for water supplies increases, the amount of water used to irrigate crops will become
more expensive or unavailable. Creating plants that can withstand long periods of drought or
high salt content in soil and groundwater will help overcome these limitations. Although
genetically engineered crops with enhanced drought tolerance are not yet commercially
available, significant research advances are pointing the way to creating these in the future.
Food applications. Research into applications of biotechnology to food production covers a
broad range of possibilities. Examples of food applications also include increasing the
nutrient content of foods where deficiencies are widespread in the population. For example,
researchers have successfully increased the amount of iron and beta-carotene (the precursor
to vitamin A in humans) in carrots and "golden rice"—a biotech rice developed by the
Rockefeller Foundation that may help provide children in developing nations with the
vitamin A they need to reduce the risk of vision problems or blindness.
Another example of food biotechnology is crops modified for higher monounsaturated fatty
acid levels in the vegetable to make them more "heart-healthy." Efforts are also under way to
slow the ripening of some crops, such as bananas, tomatoes, peppers, and tropical fruits, to
allow time to ship them from farms to large cities while preserving taste and freshness.
Other possible food applications for which pioneering research is under way include grains
and nuts where naturally occurring allergens have been reduced or eliminated. Potatoes with
higher starch content also promise to have the added potential to reduce the fat content in
fried potato products, such as french fries and potato chips. This is because the starch
replaces water in the potatoes, causing less fat to be absorbed into the potato when it is fried.
Edible vaccines. Vaccines that are commonly used today are often costly to produce and
require cold storage conditions when shipped from their point of manufacture in the
developed world to points of use in the developing world. Research has shown that proteinbased vaccines can be designed into edible plants so that simple eating of the material leads
to oral immunization. This technology will allow local production of vaccines in developing
countries, reduction of vaccine costs, and promotion of global immunization programs to
prevent infectious diseases.
Global food needs. The world population has topped six billion people and is predicted to
double by 2050. Ensuring an adequate food supply for this booming population is going to be
a major challenge in the years to come. Biotechnology can play a critical role in helping to
meet the growing need for high-quality food produced in more sustainable ways.
What Are Consumers Saying?
Crops modified by biotechnology (also known as genetically modified or GM crops) have
been the subjects of public discussion in recent years. Considerable public discussion may be
attributed to the public's interest in the safety and usefulness of new products. Although
biotechnology has a strongly supported safety record, some groups and organizations abroad
and in the United States have expressed a desire for stronger regulation of biotechnologyderived products than of similar foods derived from older technology. The assessment of the
need for new regulation is related to an understanding of the science itself, as was detailed in
the sections above; this is a continual process of development.
Consumer acceptance is critical to the success of biotechnology around the world. Attitudes
toward biotechnology vary from country to country because of cultural and political
differences, in addition to many other influences.
In the United States, the majority of consumers are supportive about the potential benefits
biotechnology can bring. Generally, U.S. consumers feel they would like to learn more about
the topic, and respond favorably when they are given accurate, science-based information on
the subject of food biotechnology.
Regulatory Oversight
Three government agencies monitor the development and testing of biotechnology crops: the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These agencies work together to ensure that
biotechnology foods are safe to eat, safe to grow, and safe for the environment.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA): Lead agency in assessing safety for human
consumption of plants or foods that have been altered using biotechnology, including foods
that have improved nutritional profiles, food quality, or food processing advantages.
U.S. Department of Agriculture: Provides regulatory oversight to ensure that new plant
varieties pose no harm to production agriculture or to the environment. USDA's Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) governs the field testing of biotechnology crops to
determine how transgenic varieties perform relative to conventional varieties, and the balance
between risk and reward.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): EPA provides regulatory and safety oversight
for new plant varieties, such as insect-protected biotechnology crops. EPA regulates any
pesticide that may be present in food to provide a high margin of safety for consumers.
Genetically Modified Organisms: Health and Environmental Concerns
There is really little doubt that, at least in principle, the development of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) can offer many advantages. Genetically modified organisms have
included crops that are largely of benefit to farmers and not clearly of broad public value.
Plans for development of GMOs include foods that have far greater nutritional and even
pharmaceutical benefit; crops that can grow in regions that currently cannot provide enough
food for subsistence; and foods that are more desirable in terms of traits that the public wants.
The market forces that largely determine which products are developed are complicated, and
there are important trade-offs: the traits that may be needed to feed a starving world are
different from the traits farmers in the United States want, and both may differ from the
characteristics the paying public supports.
Most criticisms of genetic engineering focus on food safety and environmental impacts. What
impact will GMOs have on the health of those who eat them? Will some individuals develop
allergic reactions? The new technology makes it possible to cross species barriers with
impunity. A scare over StarLink corn is instructive of this kind of problem. "Bt corn," a
common GMO, includes a gene from Bacillus thuringienis, which produces a pesticide that
kills the European corn borer. StarLink is a variety of Bt corn that includes a protein (Cry9C)
that does not break down as easily in the body, which increases the risk of allergic reactions
in some people (though there are no verified cases of this). StarLink corn was approved for
animal feed but not for human consumption. Unfortunately it is difficult if not impossible to
keep the food supply for animals and humans separate. The result has been the discovery of
small amounts of StarLink corn throughout the food supply. (Of course, there is also the
question whether a small trace of Cry9C in a fast-food taco is the greatest health problem
involved in such a meal.)
A second set of concerns arises over the environmental impact of GMOs. There are several
different concerns. First, there are worries about gene flow. The same genes that may one day
make it possible for plants to grow in poor, salty soil or in relatively arid regions could create
an ecological nightmare by allowing these crops to spread beyond their normal range as a
result of the gene(s) that have been transferred into the crop itself, or if those same genes
should be introduced to other plants. This can happen through outcrossing between the
GMOs and closely related plants. For example, GM wheat could cross with native grasses in
South America to alter the makeup of the ecosystem and potentially create "super weeds," a
possibility that has raised concerns in the "Wheat Belt" of the United States and elsewhere.
Even in the absence of gene flow, the GMOs themselves could become super weeds (or the
animal equivalent) as a result of the traits that make them better suited to new habitats. The
environmental trade-off for technology that makes it possible to produce sustainable
agriculture or aquaculture in regions where it cannot "naturally" flourish is the significant risk
of loss of biodiversity and the unchecked spread of plants or animals into unintended regions.
(The argument is made, however, that biotechnology can be used to increase yields on the
land that is currently used for agricultural production, allowing nonfarm land to be retained as
forests and reserves and thereby conserve biodiversity.)
In addition to these concerns over the ecosystem and the creation of superweeds, there is a
worry over the potential impact of some GMOs on nontarget organisms. Cornell University
researchers found that pollen from Bt corn could kill the larvae of monarch butterflies that
ingested it. This raised the fear that these engineered crops could kill butterflies and other
nontarget organisms in addition to the corn borer. The consensus from subsequent field
research is that Bt corn does not pose a major threat to monarch butterfly populations—loss
of habitat in Mexico, where the butterflies overwinter, is a more serious threat. Nevertheless,
the Bt corn–butterfly issue showed that it is not always possible to predict the consequences
that may arise from the introduction of these crops.
Genetically engineered microorganisms present even greater environmental and health
concerns. It will soon be possible to engineer bacteria and viruses to produce deadly
pathogens. This could well open a new era in biological weapons in addition to the
environmental problems that could result from the release of organisms into the environment.
The environmental assessment of the widespread introduction of engineered microorganisms
has only barely begun to receive attention (Cho et al., 1999).
These concerns are exacerbated by some inadequacies in the regulatory framework for
GMOs. There is a growing sense that the Food and Drug Administration, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, and the Environmental Protection Agency are not sufficiently
rigorous or consistent in how they regulate GMOs and that there should be a single set of
standards, including a mandatory environmental assessment. The opposition to GMOs in
Europe is much more widespread than in the United States, and the single most important
factor for the differences between European and American attitudes is the level of confidence
in the regulatory institutions that protect the food supply. After "mad cow disease,"
Europeans do not trust their governments to provide safe food. A similar loss in confidence
among U.S. consumers could have a similar effect. In spite of these concerns, however, there
have so far been no documented food safety problems resulting from the introduction of GM
crops in the mid-1990s and their large-scale consumption by the American public. There have
also been no ecological disasters, although the time since their introduction has been too brief
for the absence of disaster to be very meaningful. In some crops, notably in Bt cotton, there
have been significant reductions in the use of pesticides.
David Magnus with contributions by Peter Goldsbrough
Bibliography
Arntzen, Charles J. "Agricultural Biotechnology." In Nutrition and Agriculture. United
Nations Administrative Committee on Coordination, Subcommittee on Nutrition, World
Health Organization. September 2000
Borlaug, Norman E. "Feeding a World of 10 Billion People: The Miracle Ahead." Lecture
given at De Moutfort University, Leicester, England, May 1997.
http://agriculture.tusk.edu/biotech/monfort2html International Food Information Council
(IFIC). "Food Biotechnology Overview." Washington, D.C.: February 1998. Available at
http://ific.org.
Cho, Mildred, David Magnus, Art Caplan, and Daniel McGee. "Ethical Considerations in
Synthesizing a Minimal Genome." Science 286 (10 December 1999): 2087–2090.
—Charles J. Arntzen; Susan Pitman; Katherine Thrasher
Veterinary Dictionary: biotechnology
The application for industrial purposes of scientific, biological principles. The most modern
examples are the use of recombinant DNA technology and genetic engineering to
manufacture a wide variety of biologically useful substances such as vaccines and hormones
by expression of cloned genes in various host cell systems including bacteria, yeast and insect
cells.
Blogs: biotechnology
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FBAE Biotech Blog Agricultural biotechnology thoughts and commentary.
Add your blog to the Answers Directory.
Wikipedia: biotechnology
The structure of insulin
Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food
science, and medicine. The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity has come up
with one of many definitions of biotechnology:[1]
"Biotechnology has contributed towards the exploitation of biological organisms or
biological processes through modern techniques, which could be profitably used in
medicine, agriculture, animal husbandry and environmental cloning."
Biotechnology is a popular term for the generic technology of the 21st century. Although it
has been utilized for centuries in traditional production processes, modern biotechnology is
only 50 years old and in the last decades it has been witnessing tremendous developments.
Bioengineering is the science upon which all Biotechnological applications are based. With
the development of new approaches and modern techniques, traditional biotechnology
industries are also acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality of their
products and increase the productivity of their systems.
Before the 1970s, the term, biotechnology, was primarily used in the food processing and
agriculture industries. Since the 1970s, it began to be used by the Western scientific
establishment to refer to laboratory-based techniques being developed in biological research,
such as recombinant DNA or tissue culture-based processes. In fact, the term should be used
in a much broader sense to describe the whole range of methods, both ancient and modern,
used to manipulate organic to reach the demands of human. So the term can be defined as,
"The application of indigenous and/or scientific knowledge to the management of (parts of)
microorganisms, or of cells and tissues of higher organisms, so that these supply goods and
services of use to human beings.[2]
There has been a great deal of talk—and money—poured into biotechnology with the hope
that miracle drugs will appear. While there do seem to be a small number of efficacious
drugs, in general the biotech revolution has not happened in the pharmaceutical sector.
However, recent progress with monoclonal antibody based drugs, such as Genentech's
Avastin suggest that biotech may finally have found a role in pharmaceutical sales.
Biotechnology combines disciplines like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry,
embryology and cell biology, which are in turn linked to practical disciplines like chemical
engineering, information technology, and robotics.
History
A Genentech-sponsored sign declaring South San Francisco to be "The Birthplace of
Biotechnology."
Main article: History of Biotechnology
The most practical use of biotechnology, which is still present today, is the cultivation of
plants to produce food suitable to humans. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the
dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods
of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its
inception. Through early biotechnology farmers were able to select the best suited and
highest-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of
biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to
maintain. Specific organisms and organism byproducts were used to fertilize, restore
nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture farmers have inadvertently
altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments, breeding
them with other plantsone of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in
Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Iran developed the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the
same basic method of using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains
into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates
in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Later other cultures produced
the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of
other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened
bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s
work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another
form.
Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as medications in many early
civilizations. Since as early as 200 BC, people began to use disabled or minute amounts of
infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes
have been refined in modern medicine and have lead to many developments such as
antibiotics, vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness.
In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiological and
explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a
pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using
Clostridium acetobutylicum to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately
needed to manufacture explosives during World War I.[3]
The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely began on June 16, 1980, when
the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically-modified microorganism could be
patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty.[4] Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working
for General Electric, had developed a bacterium (derived from the Pseudomonas genus)
capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. A
university in Florida is now studying ways to prevent tooth decay. They altered the bacteria
in the tooth called Streptococcus mutans by stripping it down so it could not produce lactic
acid.
Applications
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care, crop
production and agriculture, non food uses of crops (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil,
biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology is the
directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer
and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining
industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites
contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological
weapons.
Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of
organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic
manipulation.
White biotechnology also known as grey biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to
industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful
chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce
valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals (examples using
oxidoreducatses are given in Feng Xu (2005) “Applications of oxidoreductases: Recent
progress” Ind. Biotechnol. 1, 38-50 [1]). White biotechnology tends to consume less in
resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.
Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example is the
designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the
presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology
might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture.
An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the
need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or
not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is
a topic of considerable debate.
The term blue biotechnology has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic
applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form
what has been described as the bioeconomy.
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using
computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data
possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as,
"conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to
understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale."[5]
Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural
genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and
pharmaceutical sector.
Medicine
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as
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pharmacogenomics;
drug production;
genetic testing; and
gene therapy.
Pharmacogenomics
Main article: Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her
body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and
“genomics”. It is therefore the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and
genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are
adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.[6]
Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:[7]
1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical
companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are
associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to
maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s
genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize
a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of
overdose.
3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential
therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with
numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as
targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the
drug discovery process.
4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed
by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the
attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of
being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.
Pharmaceutical products
Traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have been found
primarily through trial and error to treat the symptoms of a disease or illness.
Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these target the
underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady; it is a relatively young industry. They can
deal with targets in humans that are not accessible with traditional medicines. A patient
typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically
injected.
Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but large molecules are created by living
cells: for example, bacteria cells, yeast cell, and animal cells.
Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms
such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like insulin or antibiotics. It can also
refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered
mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also widely used to
manufacture pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the
development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.
Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical
therapies to treat diabetes, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone
fractures, multiple sclerosis, cardiovascular as well as molecular diagnostic devices than can
be used to define the patient population. Herceptin, is the first drug approved for use with a
matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells
express the protein HER2.
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing drugs more easily and cheaply.
The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to combat human
diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech joined a gene for insulin and a plasmid
vector and put the resulting gene into a bacterium called Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely
used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from sheep and pigs. It was very
expensive and often elicited unwanted allergic responses. The resulting genetically
engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of human insulin at low
cost.[8]
Since then modern biotechnology has made it possible to produce more easily and cheaply
human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and
other drugs.[9] Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic
knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are
expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.[10]
Genetic testing
Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans
a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.
There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces
of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These
probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the
mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the
mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the
sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to a normal version of the gene.
Genetic testing can be used to:
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Diagnose a disease.
Confirm a diagnosis.
Provide prognostic information about the course of a disease.
Confirm the existence of a disease in individuals.
With varying degrees of accuracy, predict the risk of future disease in healthy individuals or
their progeny.
Genetic testing is now used for:
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Determining sex
Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy
of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest
Prenatal diagnostic screening
Newborn screening
Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders
Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers
Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals
Forensic/identity testing
Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed
countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic
disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests
have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as
breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation
associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones
they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.[11]
Gene therapy
Main article: Gene therapy
Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like
cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to
bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or
germ (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is
changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline
gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing
on the changes to their offspring.
There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:
1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow
are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the
desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the
cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by
injection into a vein.
2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body.
Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.
Currently, the use of gene therapy is limited. Somatic gene therapy is primarily at the
experimental stage. Germline therapy is the subject of much discussion but it is not being
actively investigated in larger animals and human beings.
As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients
have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe
having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases
are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined
immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given
genetically engineered cells.
Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating
disease.[12] At least four of these obstacles are as follows:
1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors.
The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and
delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the
genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic
genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity,
immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues.
2. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of
only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular
disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which
creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable.
3. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than
one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the
environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the
disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise,
smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease.
4. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an
expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses
commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment.
It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.
Human Genome Project
The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that
aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify
all the human genes.
The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new
energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health
and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its
Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health
developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in
1990.
The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and
worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2005. Already it has enabled gene
hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders.[13]
Cloning
Human cloning is one of the techniques of modern biotechnology. It involves the removal of
the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has
either been deactivated or removed.
There are two types of cloning:
1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is
allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original
nucleus.
2. Therapeutic cloning.[14] The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into
embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.[15]
The major differences between these two types are shown in Table 1.
In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his
colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly,
from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many
that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings.[16]
This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications.
Concerns regarding the use of modern biotechnology techniques in medicine
Several issues have been raised regarding the use of modern biotechnology in the medical
sector. Many of these issues are similar to those facing any new technology that is viewed as
powerful and far-reaching. Some of these issues are:[17]
1. Absence of cure. There is still a lack of effective treatment or preventive measures for
many diseases and conditions now being diagnosed or predicted using gene tests. Thus,
revealing information about risk of a future disease that has no existing cure presents an
ethical dilemma for medical practitioners.
2. Ownership and control of genetic information. Who will own and control genetic
information, or information about genes, gene products, or inherited characteristics derived
from an individual or a group of people like indigenous communities? At the macro level,
there is a possibility of a genetic divide, with developing countries that do not have access to
medical applications of biotechnology being deprived of benefits accruing from products
derived from genes obtained from their own people. Moreover, genetic information can pose
a risk for minority population groups as it can lead to group stigmatization.
At the individual level, the absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in
most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other misuse of
personal genetic information. This raises questions such as whether genetic privacy is
different from medical privacy.[18]
3. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decisionmaking and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to
future generations. For example, germline therapy forever changes the genetic make-up of an
individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching
consequences. Ethical issues like designer babies and human cloning have also given rise to
controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past
abuses with eugenics.[19]
4. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other healthservice providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing
with genetic information. For instance, how should the public be prepared to make informed
choices based on the results of genetic tests? How will genetic tests be evaluated and
regulated for accuracy, reliability, and usefulness?
5. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their
families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the
family.
6. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-àvis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease. Do genes influence human
behavior? If so, does genetic testing mean controlling human behavior? What is considered
acceptable diversity? What is normal and what is a disability or disorder, and who decides
these matters? Are disabilities diseases that need to be cured or prevented? Where should the
line between medical treatment and enhancement be drawn; moreover, what considerations
make that delineation important and how do such considerations bear on public policy and
personal choice? Who will have access to gene therapy?
Agriculture
There are many applications of biotechnology in agriculture.
One is improved yield from crops. Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two
genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that
would increase its yield (30). However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious
applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current
genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene.
Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are
controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall
yield (31). There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.
Another is the reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses. Crops containing
genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For
example, drought and excessively salty soil are two important limiting factors in crop
productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme
conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually
transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the
identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from thale cress, a tiny weed that is often used for
plant research because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When
this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells, the cells were able to withstand
environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these
preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in
engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments (32).
Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle
virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the
surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections (33).
Increased nutritional qualities of food crops. Proteins in foods may be modified to increase
their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the
amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet (34). A good example is the work of
Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer on the so-called Goldenrice™(discussed below).
Improved taste, texture or appearance of food. Modern biotechnology can be used to slow
down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be
transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This improves the taste, texture
and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in
developing countries due to the reduction in spoilage.
The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its
ripening (35). Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are
currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of
Nottingham and Zeneca (36).
Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals. Most of the current
commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the
dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil
bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation
process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the
Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective.
There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have
now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its
active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt
protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut
wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a
lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process).
Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum
herbicide. The lack of cost-effective herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop
injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of
numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental
to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence — that is, herbicide
applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to
actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to
control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide tolerant
crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed
management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and
increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops
that express tolerance to glyphosphate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed.
These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the
crops while killing nearby weeds (37).
From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to
commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide
tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 626,000 square
kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and "stacked genes" for
herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8% (38).
Production of novel substances in crop plants. Modern biotechnology is increasingly being
applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed is at present used mainly for
margarine and other food oils, but it can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents,
substitute fuels and petrochemicals (39). Banana trees and tomato plants have also been
genetically engineered to produce vaccines in their fruit. If future clinical trials prove
successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing
countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines
would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional
preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in transit. And since they are
edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional
vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated (40).
There is another, darker side, many people say, to the agricultural biotechnology issue
however. It includes increased herbicide usage and resultant herbicide resistance, "super
weeds," residues on and in food crops, genetic contamination of non-GM crops which hurt
organic and conventional farmers, damage to wildlife from glyphosate, mass suicides in
India, corruption, rampant monopolism etc. For more see [2][3].crop
Biological engineering
Main article: Bioengineering
Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of engineering that
focuses on biotechnologies and biological science. It includes different disciplines such as
biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-process engineering, biosystem
engineering and so on. Because of the novelty of the field, the definition of a bioengineer is
still undefined. However, in general it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological
sciences and traditional engineering principles.
Bioengineers are often employed to scale up bio processes from the laboratory scale to the
manufacturing scale. Moreover, as with most engineers, they often deal with management,
economic and legal issues. Since patents and regulation (e.g. FDA regulation in the U.S.) are
very important issues for biotech enterprises, bioengineers are often required to have
knowledge related to these issues.
The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need for bioengineers in the
years to come. Many universities throughout the world are now providing programs in
bioengineering and biotechnology (as independent programs or specialty programs within
more established engineering fields).
Bioremediation and Biodegradation
Main article: Microbial biodegradation
Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in
an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The elimination of
a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to
promote a sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. Biological
processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is taking
advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such
compounds. New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics,
bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of
Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing
unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the
evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing
environmental conditions. Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing
our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to
carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly
accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation
processes.[20]
Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open
sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human
activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural
seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine
systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in
particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called
hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB).[21]
Notable researchers and individuals

Canada : Michael D Tyers, Frederick Banting, Lap-Chee Tsui, Tak Wah Mak, Lorne
Babiuk







Europe : Paul D Kemp, Paul Nurse, Jacques Monod, Francis Crick
Finland : Leena Palotie
Iceland : Kari Stefansson
India : Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw (Biocon)
Ireland : Timothy O'Brien, Dermot P Kelleher, Pearse Lyons
Mexico : Francisco Bolívar Zapata, Luis Herrera-Estrella
U.S. : Kate Jacques, David Botstein, Craig Venter, Sydney Brenner, Eric Lander,
Leroy Hood, Robert Langer, Henry I. Miller, Roger Beachy, William Rutter, George
Rathmann, Herbert Boyer, Michael West, Thomas Okarma, James D. Watson
See also







Bioeconomy
Biomimetics
Biotechnology industrial park
Green Revolution
List of biotechnology articles
List of biotechnology companies
Pharmaceutical company
References
1. ^ "The Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 2. Use of Terms)." United
Nations. 1992. Retrieved on September 20, 2006.
2. ^ Bunders, J.; Haverkort, W.; Hiemstra, W. "Biotechnology: Building on Farmer's
Knowledge." 1996, Macmillan Education, Ltd. ISBN 0333670825
3. ^ Springham, D.; Springham, G.; Moses, V.; Cape, R.E. "Biotechnology: The Science
and the Business." Published 1999, Taylor & Francis. p. 1. ISBN 9057024071
4. ^ "Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980). No. 79-139." United States
Supreme Court. June 16, 1980. Retrieved on May 4, 2007.
5. ^ Gerstein, M. "Bioinformatics Introduction." Yale University. Retrieved on May 8,
2007.
6. ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6.
7. ^ Ibid.
8. ^ W. Bains, Genetic Engineering For Almost Everybody: What Does It Do? What
Will It Do? (London: Penguin Books, 1987), 99.
9. ^ U.S. Department of State International Information Programs, “Frequently Asked
Questions About Biotechnology”, USIS Online; available from
http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/economic_issues/biotechnology/biotech_faq.html, accessed
13 Sept 2007. [hereafter “USIS”]. Cf. C. Feldbaum, “Some History Should Be
Repeated”, 295 Science, 8 February 2002, 975.
10. ^ Ibid.
11. ^ Ibid
12. ^ Ibid
13. ^ U.S. Department of Energy Human Genome Program, supra note 6
14. ^ A number of scientists have called for the use the term “nuclear transplantation,”
instead of “therapeutic cloning,” to help reduce public confusion. The term “cloning”
has become synonymous with “somatic cell nuclear transfer,” a procedure that can be
used for a variety of purposes, only one of which involves an intention to create a
clone of an organism. They believe that the term “cloning” is best associated with the
ultimate outcome or objective of the research and not the mechanism or technique
used to achieve that objective. They argue that the goal of creating a nearly identical
genetic copy of a human being is consistent with the term “human reproductive
cloning,” but the goal of creating stem cells for regenerative medicine is not
consistent with the term “therapeutic cloning.” The objective of the latter is to make
tissue that is genetically compatible with that of the recipient, not to create a copy of
the potential tissue recipient. Hence, “therapeutic cloning” is conceptually inaccurate.
B. Vogelstein, B. Alberts, and K. Shine, “Please Don’t Call It Cloning!”, Science (15
February 2002), 1237
15. ^ D. Cameron, “Stop the Cloning”, Technology Review, 23 May 2002’. Also
available from http://www.techreview.com. [hereafter “Cameron”]
16. ^ M.C. Nussbaum and C.R. Sunstein, Clones And Clones: Facts And Fantasies About
Human Cloning (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1998), 11. However, there is wide
disagreement within scientific circles whether human cloning can be successfully
carried out. For instance, Dr. Rudolf Jaenisch of Whitehead Institute for Biomedical
Research believes that reproductive cloning shortcuts basic biological processes, thus
making normal offspring impossible to produce. In normal fertilization, the egg and
sperm go through a long process of maturation. Cloning shortcuts this process by
trying to reprogram the nucleus of one whole genome in minutes or hours. This
results in gross physical malformations to subtle neurological disturbances. Cameron,
supra note 30
17. ^ Ibid
18. ^ The National Action Plan on Breast Cancer and U.S. National Institutes of HealthDepartment of Energy Working Group on the Ethical, Legal and Social Implications
(ELSI) have issued several recommendations to prevent workplace and insurance
discrimination. The highlights of these recommendations, which may be taken into
account in developing legislation to prevent genetic discrimination, may be found at
http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/ elsi/legislat.html.
19. ^ Eugenics is the study of methods of improving genetic qualities through selective
breeding
20. ^ Diaz E (editor). (2008). Microbial Biodegradation: Genomics and Molecular
Biology, 1st ed., Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-17-2.
21. ^ Martins VAP et al (2008). "Genomic Insights into Oil Biodegradation in Marine
Systems", Microbial Biodegradation: Genomics and Molecular Biology. Caister
Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-17-2.
Further reading



Friedman, Y. Building Biotechnology: Starting, Managing, and Understanding
Biotechnology Companies. ISBN 978-0973467635.
Oliver, Richard W. The Coming Biotech Age. ISBN 0-07-135020-9.
Zaid, A; H.G. Hughes, E. Porceddu, F. Nicholas (2001). Glossary of Biotechnology
for Food and Agriculture - A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Available in English, French, Spanish and
Arabic. Rome: FAO. ISBN 92-5-104683-2.
External links
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Genes, Technology and Policy
At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Biotechnology at:
The Department of Biotechnology


A report on Agricultural Biotechnology focusing on the impacts of "Green"
Biotechnology with a special emphasis on economic aspects
StandardGlossary.com: Biotechnology A professional Biotechnology Glossary for
beginners to learn Biotechnology
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Translations: Biotechnology
Dansk (Danish)
n. - bioteknik
Nederlands (Dutch)
biotechnologie, ergonomie
Français (French)
n. - biotechnologie
Deutsch (German)
n. - Biotechnik
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - βιοτεχνολογία
Italiano (Italian)
biotecnologia
Português (Portuguese)
n. - biotecnologia (f)
Русский (Russian)
биотехнология
Español (Spanish)
n. - biotecnología
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - bioteknik
中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
生物工学
中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 生物工學
한국어 (Korean)
n. - 생물 공학
日本語 (Japanese)
n. - バイオテクノロジー, 人間工学
‫( ال عرب يه‬Arabic)
‫)اايص( يسيه ايحلاات الععليالم التيا ه نق المسالاه‬
(werbeH) ‫עברית‬
n. - ‫ ניצול תהליכים ביולוגיים למטרות תעשייתיות ואחרות‬,‫ביוטכנולוגיה‬
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