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Project Outline
Objective:
To show that learners can learn and retrieve second language better through visual and
interactive learning instead of mere text-based learning.
Theory:
Mayer's cognitive theory of multimedia learning and Paivio's dual-code theory.
Method:
Using multimedia-based vs text-based instructional materials to compare their effectiveness
on acquiring second language by learners. A simple quiz is conducted following the learning
session to compare the effectiveness of two different approaches.
Deliverables:
Interactive learning objects will be designed and implemented with Flash to maximize the
learning effectiveness based on the theories of Mayer and Paivio.
Target Users:
Primary One Students
Language proficiency:
English as their second language
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A small-scale study:
After creating a learning object, we chose two primary one students as the experimental
group who used that interactive multimedia to learn “vocabularies of occupation” whereas the
other two as control group who just used text as learning tool. In order to text the
effectiveness of interactive multimedia on learning, these four students’ language abilities
were more or less the same. In another words, they all got an average of 85 marks in their
English Text. In this study, we found that multimedia could effectively facilitate language
acquisition as well as language comprehension. Students in the experimental group were
more engaged, motivated and attentive. They could acquire more vocabularies and faster than
control group. On the contrary, control group were less motivated and attentive. This finding
is consistent with studies conducted by Ainsworth (1999) who proposed that availability of
text and pictures allows learners to construct verbal and visual mental models of inputs and
build connections between them. These connections provide learners with two types of cues
for the retrieval of learned materials effectively as compared to only one when they learn
with text only.
Theories of learning from texts and visual displays: Dual Coding Theory, Multimedia
Learning Theory, Conjoint Processing Theory and Integrative Model of Text and
Picture Comprehension:
Majority of theories state that people can learn more deeply from words and pictures than
from words alone (Mayer, 2005). According to Paivio’s (1986) dual coding theory,
processing pictures require only little capacity of working memory and therefore leaves
enough capacity for processing of text information. Thus, verbal information and pictorial
information can be kept simultaneously in working memory and, accordingly, it is easier for
the learner to make cross-connections between the two different codes and later retrieval
information.
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Apart from that, Mayer (1997) also developed a multimedia learning theory, which combined
the assumptions of dual coding theory with the notion of multilevel mental representations. A
main assumption of Mayer’s model is that verbal and pictorial information are processed in
different cognitive subsystems and that processing results in the parallel construction of two
kinds of mental models that are finally mapped onto each other. Accordingly, an individual
understanding a text with pictures selects relevant words, constructs a prepositional
representation or text base, and then organizes the selected verbal information into a verbal
mental model of the situation described in the text. Similarly, the individual selects relevant
images, creates what is called a pictorial representation or image base, and organizes the
selected pictorial information into a visual mental model of the situation shown in the picture.
The final step is to build connections through a one-to-one-mapping between the text-based
model and the picture-based model. Integrative processing is most likely to occur if verbal
and visual information are simultaneously available in working memory, that is, the
corresponding entities in the two models are mentally available at the same time (Chandler &
Sweller, 1991).
Similarly, Kulhavy, Stock and Kealy (1993) proposed a conjoint processing theory. They
emphasize the simultaneous availability of text information and pictorial information in
working memory. An “intact map” requires only little capacity of working memory and
therefore, leaves enough capacity for processing of text information. Thus, verbal information
and pictorial information can be kept simultaneously in working memory and, accordingly, it
is easier for the learner to make cross-connections between the two different codes and later
retrieval information. Presenting information in multiple modalities is seen as advantageous
to learners who actively process such information.
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On the contrary, Schnotz (2002) holds another viewpoint who focuses not on pictures and
text per se, but on depictive (iconic) and descriptive (symbolic) representations. In this
Integrative Model of Text and Picture Comprehension, mapping happens at the level of
mental model construction and what results is not an integrated representation but
complementary representations that can communicate with one another.
Other research throughout the 1990s has also demonstrated that visual displays have
supportive effects on communication of information, thinking, and learning. Furthermore,
carefully constructed pictures as visual text adjuncts can not only have a decorative function,
but also have functions of representation, organization, interpretation, and mnemonic
encoding (Levin, Anglin & Carney, 1987).
Conclusion
According to theories and research, interactive multimedia can significantly enhance teaching
and learning. Although designing good multimedia is very time-consuming and costly,
however, their cost is paid off in long term as they can be used across educational context
included special-needs education. Thus, interactive multimedia can help educators streamline
their preparations of teaching materials and be more efficient in integration of ICT in their
teaching programs.
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References
Ainsworth, S.E. (1999). The functions of multiple representations, Computer & Education,
33(2/3), 131-152.
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction.
Cognitive and Instruction, 8, 293-332.
Kulhavy, R.W., Stock,W. A., & Kealy,W. A. (1993). How geographic maps increase recall of
instructional text. Educational technology research and development, 41, 47–62.
Levin, J. R., Anglin, G. J., & Carney, R. N. (1987). On empirically validating functions of
pictures in prose. In Willows, D. M., & Houghton, H. A. (Eds.), The Psychology of
Illustration, (Vol. 1, pp.51-86). New York: Springer.
Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions? Educational
Psychologist, 32, 1-19.
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mayer, R. E. (2005). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press.
Schnotz, W. (2002). Commentary - Towards an integrated view of learning from text and
visual displays. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 101-120.