Running Head: DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
1
Discipline in the Family
Ashleigh Hicks
Penn State York
Turn it in Score: 4%
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
2
Abstract
The use of discipline is a very well researched topic. Parenting style influences the use or
lack of discipline. The most detrimental form of discipline to a child is corporal punishment. It
was determined that there are predictors of harsh discipline for both mothers and fathers. In
conclusion, the bidirectional relationship of the parent and child has an effect on the child’s
future parenting.
Keywords: parenting, parenting styles, discipline, corporal punishment
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
3
Discipline in the Family
The method parents use to discipline their children is very controversial. There are many
strategies to discipline a child such as corporal punishment, verbal discipline, and time out.
Parenting style indicates most of the time which discipline method a parent would use. The style
of parenting has a dramatic influence on child’s well-being. Discipline methods parents use are
passed down because children learn everything from their parents.
Parenting Style Research History
Many researchers have examined parenting style research, individually as well as
working from other scientific and logical aspects. An example of an individual perspective was
acceptance/rejection and dominance/submission by Symonds in 1939 (Fletcher, Walls, Cook,
Madison, & Bridges, 2008, p. 1725). These aspects were based on two divergent attitudinal and
behavioral measures. There are several dimensions measured from researchers own perspective.
However, the most recent measure dates back to 1964 with Becker comparing the attitudinal
measures warmth and hostility (Fletcher et al., 2008, p. 1726). The behavioral measures being
compared is restrictiveness and being indulgent. These measures as well as Becker’s dimensions
are all linked to child well-being. The dimensions’ interactions such as acceptance vs. rejection
were recognized through Baumrind’s work with children in 1967 and 1971 to categorize
parenting styles (Fletcher et al., 2008, p. 1726). Parents were placed in three different parenting
groups: authoritative, authoritarian, and indulgent based on warmth and behavioral control.
Parents who were authoritative were high in warmth and behavioral control. Authoritarian
parents exhibited low warmth and high behavioral control. Indulgent parents were low in
behavioral control. Later in 1991, Baumrind studied parents of adolescents, which resulted in six
groups of parenting styles (Fletcher et al., 2008, p. 1726). Baurmind determined by assertive
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
4
control levels, supportive control, and both directive and conventional control (Fletcher et al.,
2008, p. 1726). Assertive control is defined as the demandingness and aggressiveness of the
adolescents’ levels. Directive and conventional control is when parents direct their adolescent to
listening and accepting the parents’ standards. When the parents concern is what’s best for the
adolescent, they are exhibiting supportive control. In 1983, Maccoby and Martin used two
measures of parents and designated the terms responsiveness and demandingness (Fletcher et al.,
2008, p. 1726). Baumrind’s indulgent group was divided into two groups depending on the level
of responsiveness and demandingness. Therefore, there were four parenting styles including
authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful, which are used today to classify parents
(Fletcher et al., 2008, p. 1725-1726).
Parenting Styles and Parenting Practices
Parenting practices as well as the description of the parenting style is important when
discussing parenting. Parenting styles can be defined by the dimensional components such as
parental responsiveness and demandingness as well as the style of parenting including
authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful. Both the parenting styles that are defined
by dimensional/categorical descriptions and parenting styles/parenting practices both have
different advantages. Dimensional components comprise of parental responsiveness and
demandingness and the parenting styles are defined as Baumrind’s four parenting styles. The
dimensional approach allows the components of focus to have the advantage of its extent of
responses via continuous measurement. The parenting style gets a better understanding of the
combinations of dimensions and the different assumptions to explain child well-being (Fletcher,
Walls, Cook, Madison, & Bridges, 2008, p. 1726-1727).
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
5
Parenting should be distinguished by both the parenting styles and parenting practices.
The emotional climate that parents provide describes parenting styles. For example, warmth and
structure are used by authoritative parents. The behaviors that parents use to achieve
socialization goals refer to parenting practices. Parental involvement in schooling, monitoring
activities, and disciplinary strategies are examples of parenting practices. Parenting styles and
the parenting practices relationship is not simple by any means. In fact, a way to represent a
parenting style is by using parenting practices (Fletcher, Walls, Cook, Madison, & Bridges,
2008, p. 1726-1727).
Elements of Parenting
When parenting children, parental responsiveness and parental demandingness are
essential elements. Parents that intentionally allow children to express individuality and selfassertion is called parental responsiveness. Some other aspects of parental responsiveness are
self-assertion by familiarity, supportive, and compliance to the needs and requests of the child.
Demandingness of the parent helps the child become integrated into the family as a whole. This
is achieved by requests from the adult, protection, efforts of discipline, and the ability to confront
their child if they disobey (Sartaj & Aslam, 2010, p. 48).
Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parenting advocates independence of children, but still has limitations on
their actions. This style of parenting has positive effects unlike the other parenting styles. One
positive attribute of authoritative parenting is it’s beneficial for the psychological health of
adolescents. Academic achievement in adolescents is also associated with authoritative
parenting. Of all the parenting styles, the authoritative parenting approach is the best parenting
styles due to its excelling outcomes. Self-perception is one positive outcome of this parenting
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
6
style. Authoritative parents use a rational and issue-oriented approach in which the rules are
explained by the reasoning behind them. When children learn from their mistakes on their own,
self-reliance is encouraged in their children’s future. Authoritative parents are warm and
nurturing and give and take. The warmth and nurturing aspects create socially competent, selfreliant, self-confident, and pro-social adolescents (Sartaj & Aslam, 2010, p. 50).
Authoritative parenting is high in demandingness/control and high in acceptance/warmth.
Parents tend to monitor their children’s activities and social activities with friends. Both sides of
an issue are looked at by the adolescent with the encouragement of the parent. Their
participation in family decisions is allowed, which encourage independence and individuality.
Although the rules are enforced consistently by the parent, they are explained to the adolescent
(Sartaj & Aslam, 2010, p. 50).
Authoritarian Parenting
Authoritarian parenting is believed by researchers to have a bad representation in
Western culture due to its negative child and adolescent consequences. Parents who use this
parenting style restrict the independence of children and demand them to abide by strict rules
with threatening harsh punishment. Authoritarian parents usually are less accepting of their
children than authoritative and indulgent parents. When children are not allowed to exercise
control over their behaviors and are unable to learn from their mistakes, the parents
unintentionally make their children believe they are not responsible for the consequences. This
parenting style is often perceived as negative because of the poor self-perceptions (Sartaj &
Aslam, 2010, p. 49).
Authoritarian parenting is high in demandingness/control and low in acceptance/warmth.
Authoritarian parenting or punitive parenting advises the adolescent to obey the parents’ rules
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
7
and to respect their effort. When rules are enforced by the parent, there is a very limited verbal
exchange from the adolescent. The parent makes it clear that the adolescent is not permitted to
argue or question, but will understand as they get older. Parents expect obedience with no option
or disagreement similarly to the “military” view (Sartaj & Aslam, 2010, p. 49).
This parenting style has negative effects on children. Internally, children usually
withdraw into themselves or externalize their behavior towards others by being aggressive.
Therefore, adolescents are maladjusted and have difficulty coping due to their low self-esteem.
Also, they may feel their rights have been neglected, so they may bully others. Some traits of
adolescents of authoritarian parents include social companion anxiety, but lack the ability to
initiate activity and may have weak communication skills. Foreclosed identity is often a result
from authoritarian parenting (Sartaj & Aslam, 2010, p. 49).
Indulgent Parenting
Indulgent parents or permissive parents are low in demandingness/control and high in
acceptance/warmth. Indulgent parents allow their children to make their own decisions, but
provide little guidance and few boundaries. When children misbehave, discipline typically is
minimal and inconsistent. Children usually have friendships with the parents and the parents
have little authority. Children receive much love and nurturance, but make decisions on their
own they are not mature enough to make. The parent-child relationship is bidirectional in this
parenting style especially due to the high level of warmth and affection by the parent. Children
from this parenting style have a high self-confidence and are very social individuals (Abar &
Winsler, 2006, p. 984).
Indulgent parenting generally has negative outcomes for children. Children from this
parenting style exhibit poor behavioral self-control and are disobedient toward their parents
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
8
compared to authoritative or authoritarian parents. With the lack of parental guidance in
indulgent parents, children have difficultly determining what behaviors and consequences are
acceptable. Poor school performance is also associated with indulgent parenting. Children’s
behavioral problems in school usually affect their academic progress. Another negative aspect
of indulgent parenting is that children tend to engage in risky behaviors, such as drug and alcohol
use and sexual behavior (Abar & Winsler, 2006, p. 984).
Neglectful Parenting
Neglectful parenting or rejective parenting is low in demandingness/control and low in
acceptance/warmth. There are no standards or structure that children need to follow. The
parents are not supportive and usually reject their children. As well as rejecting their children,
parents, fail to acknowledge their responsibilities as parents. The parents are uninvolved in their
child’s life. This style of parenting can cause child maltreatment issues (Chen, 2009, p. 346).
Discipline Strategies
One of the strategies used by parents that seem to be problematic is called powerassertive discipline. This strategy includes physical punishment, privileges being revoked and
direct commands. When power-assertive discipline is used with children, there is often an
association with the less optimal development. A form of a power-assertive discipline is
corporal punishment (Fletcher, Walls, Cook, Madison, & Bridges, 2008, p. 1727).
Consistency within the parenting style used assures moral development in children. Prosocial behavior is also related to the consistency of parenting. If parents are not consistent with
their discipline, it causes reinforcement for the child’s behavior to reoccur in the future. In other
words, non-compliant behavior that is overlooked increases the likelihood of the behavior
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
9
reoccurring. Antisocial behavior in children has been linked to the inconsistencies in parenting
(Fletcher, Walls, Cook, Madison, & Bridges, 2008, p. 1728).
Corporal Punishment
Corporal punishment means to cause pain to a child by using physical force, but doesn’t
cause injury. There are two important characteristics of corporal punishment. One characteristic
is that it causes the body physical pain. Also, that the punishment shouldn’t cause more than a
temporary injury such as redness of the skin, while being distinguished from forms of physical
abuse acts. Some forms of corporal punishment include spanking of the buttocks, hands or face
slapping, and moving a child with more force than required by grabbing or pushing the child.
Hitting a child with a belt, as well as other objects, is considered to be a crude form of physical
punishment (Lansford, Wage, Bates, Pettit, and Dodge, 2012, p. 225).
Effects of corporal punishment.
There are many effects of corporal punishment on children. Short-term compliance is
associated with this physical punishment (Lansford, Wage, Bates, Pettit, and Dodge, 2012, p.
224). Aggressive behavior is a result of corporal punishment in some children. Low self-esteem
and lower achievement in school is also a result of parental harsh discipline. Corporal
punishment could also eventually turn into child maltreatment (Jansen, Raat, Mackenbach,
Hofman, Jaddoe, Bakermans-Kranenburg, IJzendoorn, Verhulst, & Tiemeier, 2012, p. 254).
Depression is another effect of corporal punishment. If children are punished physically,
during their adolescence they are more likely to have depressive symptoms compared to those
who had not. Also, if corporal punishment was used more than thirty times during adolescence,
teenagers were more likely to have suicidal thoughts (Harper, Brown, Arias, & Brody, 2006, p.
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
10
197). Those children who were physically punished more than once a month are at risk for
developing clinical depression (Harper et al., 2006, p. 198).
This physical punishment does decrease as the child gets older, whereas non-corporal
discipline does not. Physical punishment usually decreases during middle childhood and
adolescence. Corporal punishment according to research indicates the behavior a child
externalizes is increased. However, the severity and frequency of corporal punishment didn’t
account for the association (Lansford, Criss, Dodge, Shaw, Pettit, & Bates, 2009, p. 1386).
Time Out
An effective discipline strategy that is widely advocated is time out. In the 1960’s, time
out was used in many behavioral programs that targeted children with behavior problems. Time
out allows the opportunity to gain reinforcement by withholding children from an environment.
Time out can range from one to five minutes, which may involve attention from the parent being
the consequence of misbehaving (Moawska & Sanders, 2011, p. 2). However, it’s not defined
but may involve sending the child to another room or a chair. If used properly, time out only
occurs for short periods of time; therefore, changing the child’s behavior (Morawska & Sanders,
2011, p. 1-2).
There are two distinctions of time out including non-exclusionary time out and
exclusionary time out. Non-exclusionary time out is defined as the child remaining in the same
environment. Exclusionary time out on the other hand, involves the child to be removed from
the current environment and placed elsewhere, such as in another room. The parent must not
raise their voice and remain calm when enforcing either of these methods of time out. When the
parent remains calm and doesn’t raise their voice, it allows the child to remain calm, which
allows them to return to the rewarding activity they were withdrawn from. There are many
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
11
variations of these forms of time outs, but the principles are the same (Morawska & Sanders,
2011, p. 2).
Effective time out.
There are many steps to be enforced for time out to be effective. Time out should always
be used with a combination of other strategies. One recommendation is not to use isolation as
the only strategy. If parents promoted children’s development, taught them new skills, and
preventing problems, parents would not have to use time out very often. The most important
aspect of time out is that it is monitored by the parents. When a parent gives the child a reason
as to why they are in time out it doesn’t add effectiveness. Threats and warnings are also not
effective in time out (Morawska & Sanders, 2011, p. 2).
Time out alternatives.
If parents use time out in conjunction with other strategies, time out is less likely to be
needed. However, there are two alternatives to time out including smacking and physical or
holding back by the parent. Smacking is not an effective strategy nor should it be used on
children of any age. Restraint by the parent is associated with less compliance in the future,
which results in the likelihood of aggressive behavior. Although there are alternatives to time
out, they are still not recommended (Morawska & Sanders, 2011, p. 4-5).
Harsh Discipline
Harsh discipline can be both verbal and physical. When research was conducted harsh
discipline focuses on physical discipline or the presence of both physical and verbal discipline.
Both outlooks on the approach of harsh discipline indicate an association that children will have
child externalizing disorders with high levels of harsh discipline being present. However, what
hasn’t been examined is internalizing problems with the association of physical harsh discipline
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
12
only being present (McKee, Roland, Coffelt, Ardis, Forehand, Massari, & Michael, 2007, p. 187188).
Child externalizing problems are associated with physical discipline and both physical
and verbal discipline. The more aggressive form of harsh discipline is physical discipline,
whereas the more likely form of discipline is verbal. Externalizing problems in children are
associated when physical abuse alone is present. If parental involvement such as parental
warmth, acceptance, and persistency are present, the child’s well-being psychologically is not
associated with harsh discipline. Therefore, when one controls the positive aspects of parenting
children are less likely to have child behavior problems. However, child behavior problems and
the association between harsh disciplines being present depend on the parent and child gender
(McKee, Roland, Coffelt, Ardis, Forehand, Massari, & Michael, 2007, p. 188).
Determinants of Harsh Discipline
There are many factors that increase child abuse and maltreatment. Along with parental
history of abuse, some other factors may include poverty and the use of substances. Harsh
discipline affects the child’s healthy development as well as child maltreatment. If parents were
more aware of the consequences that harsh discipline has on their children, they may able to
prevent physical discipline. Internalizing and externalizing behaviors of children were
associated with psychological maltreatment from parents. Psychological maltreatment examples
include being criticized, screamed at, or unfairly treated. Externalizing problems in children are
only associated with physical abuse alone. Therefore, child problem behaviors are differently
associated with verbal and physical discipline (Jansen, Raat, Mackenbach, Hofman, Jaddoe,
Bakermans-Kranenburg, IJzendoorn, Verhulst, & Tiemeier, 2012, p. 254).
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
13
Maternal harsh discipline determinants.
There are a several harsh discipline determinants for mothers. One association of harsh
discipline is having a child at a young age. Another determinant is related to the low
socioeconomic status indicators. Ethnicity also is a predictor of harsh discipline. White mothers
are less likely to use harsh disciplined compared to African-American mothers. Mothers who
have in the past have been a part of a highly dysfunctional family are also said to be a
determinant for harsh discipline. Some other more obvious determinants include substance use,
physical abuse as a child, and hostile behavior (Jansen, Raat, Mackenbach, Hofman, Jaddoe,
Bakermans-Kranenburg, IJzendoorn, Verhulst, & Tiemeier, 2012, p. 254).
Paternal harsh discipline determinants.
Paternal harsh discipline determinants are not very well researched, but there are a few
determinants for fathers. Younger fathers are more likely to use harsh discipline than older
fathers. White and African-American fathers used physical aggression more than Hispanic
fathers. In contrast with maternal determinants, paternal harsh discipline was not associated with
socioeconomic status and drug use. Fathers who are under stress are more likely to use harsh
discipline. Although research for paternal determinants is limited, there are still some indicators
that fathers will use harsh discipline (Jansen, Raat, Mackenbach, Hofman, Jaddoe, BakermansKranenburg, IJzendoorn, Verhulst, & Tiemeier, 2012, p. 254-255).
Conclusion
The well-being of a child is very important. If parents continue to use corporal
punishment or any method of discipline that affects the child’s well-being, the child will pass the
negativity onto their children. Parents need to understand their relationship with their child
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
influences the child’s way of parenting in the future. Therefore, parents should become more
aware of their parenting style and their approach on discipline.
14
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
15
References
Abar, B., & Winsler, A. (2006). Permissive parenting style. In N. J. Salkind (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of Human Development (Vol. 3, pp. 984-985). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Reference.
Retrieved from
http://go.galegroup.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3466300487
&v=2.1&u=psucic&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
Alizadeh, S., Abu Talib, M. B., Abdullah, R., & Mansor, M. (2011). Relationship between
parenting style and children's behavior problems. Asian Social Science, 7(12), 195-200.
doi:10.5539/ass.v7n12p195
Chen, Z.-Y. (2009). Parenting style. In D. Carr (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Life Course and
Human Development (Vol. 1, pp. 344-348). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA.
Retrieved from
http://go.galegroup.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3273000093
&v=2.1&u=psucic&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w
Fletcher, A. C., Walls, J.K., Cook, E.C., Madison, K.J., & Bridges, T.H. (2008). Parenting styles
as a moderator of associations between maternal disciplinary strategies and child wellbeing. Journal of Family Issues, 29. doi:10.1177/0192513X08322933
Gershoff, E.T., Grogan-Kaylo, A., Lansford, J.E. Chang, L., Zelli, A., Deater-Deckard, K. &
Dodge, K.A. (2010). Parent discipline practices in an international sample: Associations
with child behaviors and moderation by perceived normativeness. Child Development,
81, 487-502. doi:10.1111.j.1467-8624.2009.014091.x
DISCIPLINE IN THE FAMILY
16
Harper, F. W. K., Brown, A., Arias, I, & Brody, G. (2006). Corporal punishment and kids: How
do parent support and gender influence child adjustment? Journal of Family Violence,
21(3), 197-207. doi:10.1007/s10896-006-9018-2
Jansen, P. W., Raat, H., Mackenbach, J. P., Hofman, A., Jaddoe, V. W. V., BakermansKranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Verhulst, F. C. & Tiemeier, H. (2012). Early
determinants of maternal and paternal harsh discipline: The generation r study. Family
Relations, 61, 253–270. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00691.x
Lansford, J. E., Criss, M. M., Dodge, K. A., Shaw, D. S., Pettit, G. S. & Bates, J. E. (2009).
Trajectories of physical discipline: early childhood antecedents and developmental
outcomes. Child Development, 80, 1385–1402. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01340.x
Lansford, J. E., Wager, L. B., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S. & Dodge, K. A. (2012). Forms of
spanking and children's externalizing behaviors. Family Relations, 61, 224–236. doi:
10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00700.x
McKee, L., Roland, E., Coffelt, N., Ardis, L. O., Forehand, R., Massari, C., & Michael, S. Z.
(2007). Harsh discipline and child problem behaviors: The roles of positive parenting and
gender. Journal of Family Violence, 22(4), 187-196. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9070-6
Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. (2011). Parental use of time out revisited: A useful or harmful
parenting strategy? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20(1), 1-8. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9371-x
Sartaj, B., & Aslam, N. (2010). Role of authoritative and authoritarian parenting in home, Health
and emotional adjustment. Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 20(1), 47-66. Retrived from
http://web.ebscohost.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=8341
94c6-02de-41ed-bc1e-0008677f5cc6%40sessionmgr15&vid=16&hid=118