1
Col. Z. Magruder High School
Honors Human Anatomy and Physiology
Dr. Newman
OBJECTIVES
PLEASE NOTE: Some of the objectives will be considered only in lecture or only in lab, others
will be dealt with both in lecture and in lab, and still others may be assigned for independent
study.
CHAPTER 1 – THE HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION
1. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology.
2. Explain the principle of complementarity.
3. Name the different levels of structural organization that make up the human body and explain
their relationships.
4. *List the organ systems of the body and describe the role of each.
5. Define homeostasis and describe the processes by which the body maintains homeostasis,
including negative and positive feedback mechanisms. Give the functional importance of the
nervous and endocrine systems.
6. *Describe the anatomical position, and use appropriate anatomical terminology to describe
body directions, regions, and body planes or sections. See the lab handout for details.
7. *Locate the major body cavities, name their subdivisions, and list the major organs in each
cavity or subdivision. Assemble a manikin and point out assigned structures. See the lab
handout for details.
8. *Name the specific serous membranes and note their common functions. See the lab
handout for details
CHAPTER 2 – CHEMISTRY COMES ALIVE
9. Differentiate between matter and energy and between potential energy and kinetic energy.
10. Define chemical element and give the symbol for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
sodium, chlorine, potassium, calcium, iron, copper, and sulfur. Name the four elements that
form the bulk of body matter.
11. Differentiate between an element, atom, ion, compound, and molecule, and give an example
of each.
12. Compare and contrast nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds.
13. Describe the factors that affect chemical reaction rates.
14. Discuss the characteristics of water that make it essential to life. Lab: discuss solutions and
ways of expressing concentrations
15. Define acid, base, and electrolyte. Explain the concepts of pH and buffers.
16. Explain dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis of macromolecules.
17. For each of the following organic compounds, give the identifying chemical characteristics,
identify the monomers and polymers, and the general use in the body.
18.
19.
20.
21.
glucose
amino acids
fatty acids
phopholipids
glycogen
polypeptides
glycerol
steroids
proteins
triglycerides
lipids
monosaccharides (name them)
disaccharides (name them)
polysaccharides (name them)
Discuss the structure of proteins, levels of structural organization of a protein and protein
denaturation.
Describe the importance of enzymes to living systems. Explain the mechanisms of enzyme
action and list the factors that affect the speed of enzyme activity.
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA as to composition, size, function and location.
Explain the structure of ATP and its role in cell metabolism.
1
2
CHAPTER 3 – CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS
22. Explain the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure. Describe the chemical composition of
the plasma membrane including phospholipid, integral and peripheral proteins, cholesterol.
23. Describe the importance of membrane proteins as they function as carriers, receptors,
markers, cell recognition, cell transport and enzymatic reactions.
24. Compare the structure and function of microvilli, tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap
junctions.
25. Relate plasma membrane structure to active and passive transport mechanisms, including
filtration, diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, solute pump and vesicular pump,
phagocytosis, exocytosis, endocytosis, and hypertonic, hypotonic and isotonic environments.
Differentiate clearly between these transport processes relative to energy source, substances
transported, direction, and mechanism.
26. Define membrane potential and explain how the resting membrane potential is established
and maintained. Briefly discuss excitable tissues and action potential. Use the terms
polarized, depolarized, concentration gradient, electrochemical gradient and
sodium/potassium pump.
27. Describe the role of receptors in the plasma membrane and give several examples.
28. Describe the structure and function of cytoplasm (cytosol) and organelles/structures,
including, mitochondria, lysosomes, cilia, ribosomes, peroxisomes, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, microfilaments, microtubules,
vesicles, flagella and centrioles.
29. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus, including the nuclear envelope, nucleoli,
chromatin, chromosome..
30. *Describe the events of each phase in the cell cycle. Identify stages of mitosis and
cytokinesis on microscope slides, and explain the significance of this type of cell division.
31. Describe stem cell and tell what is meant by cell differentiation.
CHAPTER 4 – TISSUE: THE LIVING FABRIC
32. List several characteristics that typify epithelial tissue.
33. Describe the structure of each of the following types of epithelia, and indicate their chief
function(s) and location(s):
simple squamous, stratified squamous (both keratinized and non-keratinized), simple
cuboidal, simple columnar, transitional, pseudostratified ciliated columnar.
34. Compare endocrine and exocrine glands relative to their general structure, product(s), and
mode of secretion
35. Describe common characteristics of connective tissues and their structural elements.
Explain the bases for classification of connective tissues.
36. Compare and contrast the following types of connective tissue considering cells, matrix
(ground substance, fibers), functions, location and blood supply:
37. Areolar, dense regular, adipose, dense irregular, elastic connective tissue, hyaline cartilage,
fibrocartilage, bone (spongy and compact), and blood.
38. Compare and contrast the cutaneous membrane, mucous membrane, serous membrane,
and synovial membrane.
39. Compare and contrast the structures, functions and body locations of smooth, skeletal, and
cardiac muscle tissue.
40. Name the general characteristics and functions of nervous tissue.
41. Describe the process of tissue repair involved in the normal healing of a superficial wound
including the inflammatory process, granulation and regeneration/fibrosis.
42. *Identify assigned tissues and their features from microscope slides. See the lab handout for
details.
2
3
CHAPTER 5 – THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
43.
Name the tissue type/s composing the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis and the cell
types found in each layer. Describe the layers of the epidermis and the dermis. Include
keratinocyte, melanocyte, Langerhans cell, fibroblast and adipocyte .
44.
*On microscope slides and models, identify the specific layers and tissue types composing
the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Include the five layers of the epidermis and the two
layers of the dermis. Relate the functions of each layer to its structure.
45.
Describe the pigments that normally contribute to skin color, including carotene, melanin
and hemoglobin.
46.
Compare the structure, distribution, locations, and secretions of eccrine and apocrine
sudoriferous glands, sebaceous glands and hair follicles. Identify the sense receptors in
the skin.
47.
Name six functions of the skin. Explain how these functions are accomplished and how
they contribute to homeostasis.
CHAPTER 6 –BONES AND BONE TISSUE
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
List and describe five functions of bone.
*Review types of cartilage associated with the skeleton.
Compare and contrast the structure of the four classes of bones (long, short, flat and
irregular) and provide examples of each class.
Describe the gross anatomy of a typical long bone and flat bone. Indicate the locations
and functions of red and yellow marrow, articular cartilage, endosteum, epiphysis,
diaphysis, marrow cavity and periosteum.
*Distinguish clearly between the several types of bone markings. Note their relative
functions. See the lab handout for details.
Describe bone histology (compact and spongy bone) including osteon, central canal,
perforating canal, lacuna, trabecula, lamella, canaliculus, osteocyte.,and discuss the
chemical composition of bone.
Compare and contrast the two types of bone formation: intramembranous and
endochondral ossification. For endochondral ossification use the terms primary and
secondary ossification centers, articular cartilage, epiphyseal plate and medullary cavity.
Describe the process of long bone growth that occurs in length at the epiphyseal plate and
in diameter.
Compare the location and functions of the osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts in bone
formation, growth and remodeling. Explain how hormonal controls (calcitonin, parathyroid
hormone) and physical stress are related to bone remodeling.
CHAPTER 7 – THE SKELETON: These objectives will be dealt with primarily in the lab. See the
lab handout for details.
57.
*Name the major parts of the axial and appendicular skeletons and describe their most
important functions.
58.
*Name, describe, and identify the bones of the skull. Identify their important markings and
functions.
59.
*Identify bones containing paranasal sinuses. Discuss the importance of the paranasal
sinuses.
60.
*Describe the general structure of the vertebral column and name its components.
61.
*Indicate a common function of the spinal curvatures and the intervertebral discs.
62.
*Discuss the structure of a typical vertebra and describe the special characteristics of
cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae.
63.
*Name and describe the bones of the thorax.
64.
*Identify the bones forming the pectoral girdle and relate their structure and arrangement to
the function of this girdle.
65.
*Identify the bones of the upper limb and their important markings.
3
4
66.
67.
*Name the bones contributing to the os coxa and relate the strength of the pelvic girdle to
its function in the body. Describe the differences in the anatomy of the male and female
pelves and relate these to functional differences.
*Identify the bones of the lower limb and their important markings.
CHAPTER 8 – JOINTS:
68.
Define joint or articulation, and describe the criteria used to classify joints structurally
(fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and functionally (synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, diarthrotic).
69.
Describe the general structure of fibrous joints and give examples of sutures and
syndesmoses.
70.
Describe the general structure of cartilaginous joints and give examples of synchrodroses
and symphyses.
71.
Describe the anatomical characteristics common to all synovial joints, and discuss the
factors that help to make these joints stable. Include joint capsule, articular cartilage,
synovial membrane and synovial cavity.
72.
*Name and describe the common types of body movements.
73.
*Describe the anatomy of the hinge, ball and socket and pivot synovial joints and the type
of movement allowed. Provide examples of each type.
CHAPTER 9 – MUSCLES AND MUSCLE TISSUE
74.
Explain the functional characteristics of skeletal muscle; excitation. Contraction,
extensibility and elasticity.
75.
Review the basic types of muscle tissue and their characteristics.
76.
List four important functions of muscle tissue.
77.
Describe the gross structure of a skeletal muscle including: epimysium, perimysium,
endomysium, tendon, fascicle, muscle fiber, blood vessels.
78.
Describe the microscopic structure and functional roles of the myofibrils, sarcoplasmic
reticulum, T-tubules and triads of skeletal muscle fibers. Label a diagram of a sarcomere
showing thick, thin and elastic myofilaments; A and I bands, H zone and Z disc; cross
bridges. Indicate the location of actin, myosin, tropomyosin, and troponin.
79.
Describe the neuromuscular junction using the terms; axon terminal, neurotransmitter,
synaptic cleft, motor end plate, receptor, sarcolemma, ion gated channel, voltage gated
channel.
80.
Explain how an action potential is generated across the sarcolemma and how muscle
fibers are stimulated to contract by the sliding filament mechanism of skeletal muscle
contraction. Include a discussion of excitation-contraction coupling.
81.
Define a motor unit and explain its relationship to smooth, graded contractions of a skeletal
muscle.
82.
Define muscle twitch and describe the events occurring during its three phases.
83.
Differentiate between isometric and isotonic contractions.
84.
Describe three ways ATP is regenerated during skeletal muscle contraction. Relate the
production of ATP to generation of body heat.
85.
Define oxygen debt and muscle fatigue. List possible causes of muscle fatigue.
86.
Describe muscle tone and give its importance.
87.
List and describe factors that influence the force, velocity and duration of skeletal muscle
contractions.
88.
Compare and contrast (red slow-twitch) slow oxidative fibers, (white fast-twitch) slow
glycolytic fibers, and (intermediate fast-twitch) fast oxidative fibers. Explain the relative
value of each fiber type.
89.
Compare and contrast the effects of aerobic and resistance exercise on skeletal muscles
and on other body systems. Define hypertrophy and atrophy.
90.
Compare the anatomy and physiology of smooth muscle fibers to those of skeletal muscle
fibers.
4
5
CHAPTER 10 – THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM: These objectives will be dealt with primarily in the
lab. See lab handout for details.
91.
*Explain the function of prime movers, antagonists, synergists and fixators, and describe
how each promotes normal muscular function.
92.
*List and define the criteria used in naming muscles. Provide an example to illustrate the
use of each criterion.
93.
*Name and identify (on appropriate diagrams, photographs, models, or specimens) certain
muscles and their origins, insertions, antagonists, synergists and actions as assigned.
CHAPTER 11 – FUNDAMENTALS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND NERVOUS TISSUE
94.
xList the basic functions of the nervous system.
95.
xExplain the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system.
96.
xDiscuss the location, structure, and functions of the six types of neuroglia.
97.
xDescribe the important anatomical structures of a neuron and relate each structure to a
physiological role. Include the terms: cell body, axon, axon terminal, dendrite, Nissl bodies,
neurilemma, Schwann cell, myelin sheath, node of Ranvier, neurofibrils and axolemma.
98.
xExplain the importance of the myelin sheath and describe how it is formed in the central
and peripheral nervous systems.
99.
Classify neurons, both structurally and functionally. (See Table 11.1)
100. xDifferentiate between nerve fiber, neuron, nerve, tract, and between a nucleus and a
ganglion.
101. xDefine resting membrane potential and describe its electrochemical basis.
102. xLabel an action potential and describe what is occurring at each part. Compare and
contrast graded and action potentials.
103. xDifferentiate between depolarization and hyperpolarization and between generator
potentials and postsynaptic potentials.
104. xExplain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons.
105. xDefine absolute and relative refractory periods and the all or none response.
106. xDefine saltatory conduction and contrast it to conduction along an unmyelinated fiber. List
conditions under which conduction speeds can be increased.
107. xDefine synapse. Distinguish between electrical and chemical synapses structurally and in
their mechanisms of information transmission.
108. xDistinguish between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
109. xDescribe how synaptic events are integrated and modified (summation, potentiation and
inhibition).
110. Define neurotransmitter. Give the classification, tell if the neurotransmitter is excitatory or
inhibitory, has a direct or indirect action, where it is located, and a brief description of its
effect for xacetylcholine, xnor epinephrine, xdopamine, xserotonin, xGABA, glycine,
xglutamate, xendorphins.
CHAPTER 12 – THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
111. xName the major regions of the brain including cerebrum, diencephalon, brain stem
(midbrain, pons, medulla), and cerebellum.
112. xDefine the term ventricle. Give the importance of the ventricles of the brain and indicate
their location.
113. xIndicate the major lobes, fissures and functional areas of the cerebral cortex. See lab
handout for details.
114. xDescribe the function of the major motor areas of the cerebral cortex; primary motor
cortex, premotor cortex, Broca’s area and frontal eye field.
115. xDescribe the function of the major sensory areas of the cerebral cortex: primary
somatosensory cortex, somatosensory association area, visual cortex, visual association
area, auditory cortex, auditory association area, olfactory cortex, gustatory cortex,
vestibular cortex.
116. xDescribe the function of the major association areas of the cerebral cortex: anterior
association area (prefrontal cortex), posterior association area, limbic area.
5
6
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
xExplain lateralization of hemispheric function.
Differentiate between commissures, association fibers, and projection fibers.
State the general function of the basal nuclei.
xDescribe the location of the subdivisions of the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus
and epithalamus), and their functions.
xIdentify the three major regions of the brain stem (midbrain, medulla and pons) and note
the general function of each area.
xDescribe the structure and function of the cerebellum and describe its relationship with
the primary motor cortex.
xExplain the role of the limbic system and the reticular formation
xDescribe how meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood–brain barrier protect the
central nervous system. Give the structural characteristics of the dura mater, pia mater,
arachnoid mater and CSF. Discuss the production, flow pattern and reabsorption of CSF.
Describe the structure, location and importance of the blood-brain barrier.
Describe the formation and reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid, and follow its circulatory
pathway. Include ventricles, cerebral aquaduct, choroid plexus, arachnoid villi, sagittal
sinus, subarachnoid space.
Distinguish between long term and short term memory. Tell which brain parts are
responsible for memory and factors that can affect memory.
Describe the gross and microscopic structure of the spinal cord. Include epidural space,
conus medullaris, filum terminale, cauda equina,spinal nerve, spinal roots (dorsal and
ventral), dorsal root ganglion, gray matter (posterior, anterior and lateral horns) and white
matter (funiculi, spinothalmic tract, spinocerebellar tract, corticospinal tract and rubrospinal
tract).
CHAPTER 13 – THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND REFLEX ACTIVITY
128. xDefine peripheral nervous system and list its components.
129. xClassify sensory receptors according to body location, stimulus detected, and structural
complexity
130. Describe receptor potentials and generator potentials. xDefine adaptation.
131. Define nerve and describe the general structure of a nerve including nerve fiber,
endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium, fascicle, blood supply.
132. xDistinguish between sensory, motor, and mixed nerves cranial nerves
133. Describe the process of nerve fiber regeneration.
134. Name the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and describe the body region and structures
innervated by each. Describe each as motor, sensory, or mixed.
135. Describe the anatomy of a spinal nerve, and distinguish between spinal roots and rami.
Describe the general distribution of dorsal and ventral rami and rami communicantes.
136. xDefine plexus. Name the major plexuses, and describe the distribution and function of the
axillary, musculocutaneous, phrenic, radial, gluteal, femoral, obturator and sciatic
peripheral nerves.
137. xDistinguish between autonomic and somatic reflexes.
138. Discuss the components of a reflex arc. Compare and contrast stretch, flexor, and crossed
extensor reflexes.
CHAPTER 14 – THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
139. Compare the somatic and autonomic nervous systems relative to effectors, efferent
pathways, and neurotransmitters released.
140. Compare and contrast the general functions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic
divisions.
141. Describe the site of CNS origin, locations of ganglia, and general fiber pathways of the
parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.
142. Define cholinergic and adrenergic fibers.
6
7
143. Note the effects of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions on the following organs:
heart, blood vessels of skeletal muscle, gastrointestinal tract, lungs, adrenal medulla,
external genitalia, pupil, kidney, salivary glands and sweat glands.
CHAPTER 15 – THE SPECIAL SENSES;
144. Describe the structure and function of accessory eye structures (conjunctiva, lacrimal
apparatus, six extrinsic eye muscles), eye tunics (fibrous tunic [sclera and cornea],
vascular tunic [choroid, ciliary body, ciliary muscles and iris], and sensory tunic [retina,
optic disc, macula lutea and fovea centralis]), lens, and aqueous and vitreous humors of
the eye.
145. Trace the pathway of light through the eye to the retina, and explain how light is focused
for distant and close vision.
146. Compare and contrast the roles of rods and cones in vision.
147. Explain accommodation, refraction and depth perception.
148. Note the cause and consequences of astigmatism, cataract, glaucoma, hyperopia, myopia
and color blindness.
149. Trace the visual pathway to the occipital cortex. Include the role of the retina, thalamus and
cerebral cortex.
150. Describe the structure and general function of the outer, middle and inner ear including
pinna, external auditory meatus, tympanic membrane, 3 ear ossicles, oval and round
windows, auditory tube, vestibule [utricle and saccule], semicircular canals, cochlea, scala
tympani and vestibuli, basilar membrane, tectorial membrane, and organ of Corti.
151. Describe sound in terms of frequency, amplitude and decibels.
152. Describe the sound conduction pathway to the fluids of the inner ear, and follow the
auditory pathway from the organ of Corti to the temporal cortex.
153. Explain how one is able to differentiate pitch and loudness of sounds and to localize the
source of sounds.
154. Explain how the balance organs (semicircular canals and the vestibule) help to maintain
dynamic and static equilibrium.
7